Tool use inCebus apella: A case study

The case of a captive Cebus apella,capable of utilizing detached objects as true hammering tools in cracking nuts open, is investigated. In the experimental task administered, the monkey was offered nuts of two different sizes, hazelnuts and walnuts, and a choice among three “hammers” of different percussional efficacy. Its performance was compared to that of one of its cagemates that did not use tools and to its own performance in the absence of tools. Results show that there was a consistent choice of the most efficient tool, that tool use greatly reduces the amount of time needed to crack a nut open (in comparison with either the action of the teeth or pounding the nut against a hard substrate), and that the efficacy of tool use is not conditioned by the relative hardness or size of the nut. In the light of these results, the role of tool use in the exploitation of food resouces is discussed.     

Vice-anvil use in nut processing by two Corvus species

Woodpeckers and certain passerine species secure encased food in the environment in various ways to facilitate the extraction of the contents with their bills. They do this by securing the food items in locations such as crevices and holes, newly defined in this paper as ‘vice-anvils’. Here I report that free-living New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) and rooks (Corvus frugilegus, in New Zealand) also use vice-anvils to process candlenuts and walnuts, respectively. New Caledonian crows placed candlenut sections in vice-anvils to aid kernel extraction, after the candlenuts had been dropped onto an anvil to break them open. In contrast, rooks used vice-anvils to secure walnuts while they broke the shell with their bills. Long-term use by rooks of a vice-anvil in a tree had produced a ‘purpose-made’ nut-cracking site. My findings extend the persistent use of specific vice-anvils to Corvus species and further demonstrate their innovative and flexible foraging behaviour.     

Use of objects as hammers to open nuts by capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)

The use of stones as hammers to break open nuts was studied in a captive group of 7 Cebus apella. Only the single adult female and an infant showed no tool use. Tool use significantly reduced the time required to break open the nuts and obtain the kernel and led to fewer nuts being abandoned. Individual differences and social processes surrounding tool use are described. The development of tool use in a juvenile female is documented, along with the same female's novel use of a previously neglected object as a tool and the subsequent use of this object by the other members of the group.     

Tool use by the graphic tuskfish Choerodon graphicus

We describe how the graphic tuskfish Choerodon graphicus in New Caledonia uses rocks and coral heads as anvils to break open bivalves to obtain food. Video revealed that C. graphicus can make as many as 28 strikes on two anvils over 6 min in a single event. This example of tool use in fishes extends the behaviour taxonomically and geographically and supports the hypothesis that tool use may be widespread in wrasses, particularly those in the Choerodon genus.     

Development of engineered biofilms on poly- L-lysine patterned surfaces

A technique has been developed to selectively attach bacteria to solid supports using poly-l-lysine. The patterned biofilms were labeled with green fluorescent protein (GFP) or a nucleic acid stain and imaged using both confocal microscopy and GFP stereomicroscopy. E. coli DH10B, E. coli MC1061, and Pseudomonas sp. GJ1 were selectively attached to regions coated with poly-l-lysine but not to uncoated regions. In contrast, E. coli DH5, W3110 and 33456 attached indiscriminately to the coated and uncoated regions of the surface. Those organisms that selectively attached to the poly-l-lysine coated regions formed biofilms twice as thick as the organisms that attached indiscriminately to the surface. This technique can be used for selectively patterning surfaces with genetically engineered microorganisms for biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and biodegradation or for developing a bacterial-based microscale medical diagnostic tool.     

Chitosan coated alginate beads for the survival of microencapsulated Lactobacillus plantarum in pomegranate juice

This work studied the effect of multi-layer coating of alginate beads on the survival of encapsulated Lactobacillus plantarum in simulated gastric solution and during storage in pomegranate juice at 4°C. Uncoated, single and double chitosan coated beads were examined. The survival of the cells in simulated gastric solution (pH 1.5) was improved in the case of the chitosan coated beads by 0.5-2 logs compared to the uncoated beads. The cell concentration in pomegranate juice after six weeks of storage was higher than 5.5logCFU/mL for single and double coated beads, whereas for free cells and uncoated beads the cells died after 4 weeks of storage. In simulated gastric solution, the size of the beads decreased and their hardness increased with time; however, the opposite trend was observed for pomegranate juice, indicating that there is no correlation between cell survival and the hardness of the beads.     

Isolation and characterization of wheat-rye recombinants involving chromosome arm 1DS of wheat

Summary The introgression of genetic material from alien species is assuming increased importance in wheat breeding programs. One example is the translocation of the short arm of rye chromosome 1 (1RS) onto homoeologous wheat chromosomes, which confers disease resistance and increased yield on wheat. However, this translocation is also associated with dough quality defects. To break the linkage between the desirable agronomic traits and poor dough quality, recombination has been induced between 1RS and the homoeologous wheat arm IDS. Seven new recombinants were isolated, with five being similar to those reported earlier and two havina new type of structure. All available recombinantsw ere characterized with DNA probes for the loci Nor-R1, 5SDna-R1, and Tel-R1. Also, the amount of rye chromatin present was quantified with a dispersed rye-specific repetitive DNA sequence in quantitative dot blots. Furthermore, the wheat-rye recombinants were used as a mapping tool to assign two RFLP markers to specific regions on chromosome arms 1DS and 1RS of wheat and rye, respectively.     

Evaluation of mono or mixed cultures of lactic acid bacteria in type II sourdough system

The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of mono and mixed lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cultures to determine suitable LAB combinations for a type II sourdough system. In this context, previously isolated sourdough LAB strains with antimicrobial activity, which included Lactobacillus plantarum PFC22, Lactobacillus brevis PFC31, Pediococcus acidilactici PFC38, and Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis PFC80, were used as mono or mixed culture combinations in a fermentation system to produce type II sourdough, and subsequently in bread dough production. Compared to the monoculture fermentation of dough, the use of mixed cultures shortened the adaptation period by half. In addition, the use of mixed cultures ensured higher microbial viability, and enhanced the fruity flavor during bread dough production. It was determined that the combination of L. plantarum PFC22 + P. acidilactici PFC38 + L. sanfranciscensis PFC80 is a promising culture mixture that can be used in the production of type II sourdough systems, and that may also contribute to an increase in metabolic activity during bread production process.     

The enhanced tool‐kit of two groups of wild bearded capuchin monkeys in the Caatinga: tool making,associative use,and secondary tools

The use of stones to crack open encapsulated fruit is widespread among wild bearded capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus) inhabiting savanna‐like environments. Some populations in Serra da Capivara National Park (Piauí, Brazil), though, exhibit a seemingly broader toolkit, using wooden sticks as probes, and employing stone tools for a variety of purposes. Over the course of 701.5 hr of visual contact of two wild capuchin groups we recorded 677 tool use episodes. Five hundred and seventeen of these involved the use of stones, and 160 involved the use of sticks (or other plant parts) as probes to access water, arthropods, or the contents of insects' nests. Stones were mostly used as “hammers”—not only to open fruit or seeds, or smash other food items, but also to break dead wood, conglomerate rock, or cement in search of arthropods, to dislodge bigger stones, and to pulverize embedded quartz pebbles (licking, sniffing, or rubbing the body with the powder produced). Stones also were used in a “hammer‐like” fashion to loosen the soil for digging out roots and arthropods, and sometimes as “hoes” to pull the loosened soil. In a few cases, we observed the re‐utilization of stone tools for different purposes (N=3), or the combined use of two tools—stones and sticks (N=4) or two stones (N=5), as sequential or associative tools. On three occasions, the monkeys used smaller stones to loosen bigger quartz pebbles embedded in conglomerate rock, which were subsequently used as tools. These could be considered the first reports of secondary tool use by wild capuchin monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 71:242–251, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Acceptability of Mini-Tablets in Young Children: Results from Three Prospective Cross-over Studies

To ensure optimal, reliable treatment, it is necessary to investigate the efficacy, safety and the optimal dose of drug substances and to develop suitable age-specific pharmaceutical formulations for the different paediatric age groups due to a lack of evidence-based therapeutic options for children. While WHO recommends the use of solid dosage forms in general, European Medicines Agency (EMA) requires evidence for the suitability of these dosage forms in the targeted age group. This review aims to summarize and discuss the data obtained in acceptability studies on the suitability of coated and uncoated mini-tablets in children of different ages in comparison to a sweet syrup considered as gold standard. The predefined outcome parameters ‘acceptability’ and ‘capability to swallow’ of the two different mini-tablet formulations (uncoated and film-coated) were statistically significantly higher than that of the syrup.     

Mixed-model QTL mapping for kernel hardness and dough strength in bread wheat

Plant breeding data comprise unbalanced phenotypic data for inbreds with complex pedigrees. As traditional methods to map quantitative trait loci (QTL) cannot exploit plant breeding data, an alternative approach is QTL mapping via a mixed-model procedure. Our objective was to validate mixed-model QTL mapping for self-pollinated crops by detecting QTL for kernel hardness and dough strength from data in a bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) breeding program. We studied 80 parental and 373 experimental inbreds genotyped for 65 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and three candidate loci. The methodology involved three steps: variance component estimation, single-marker analyses, and a final multiple-marker analysis with marker effects treated as fixed effects. Two QTLs for kernel hardness were detected on chromosomes 1A (close to candidate locus GluA3) and 5D (close to candidate locus Ha). Four QTLs were detected for dough strength on chromosomes 1A, 1B, 1D, and 5B. Candidate gene GluA1, which was associated with dough strength, was the only candidate locus found significant. Results were consistent with previously reported markers and QTLs associated with kernel hardness and dough strength. Unlike previous studies that have assumed QTL effects as random, the assumption of fixed marker effects identified the favorable marker alleles to select for. We conclude that the detection of previously mapped QTL validates the usefulness of mixed-model QTL mapping in the context of a plant-breeding program.     

Organization and dynamics of lipids in bovine brain coated and uncoated vesicles

Three characteristics have been demonstrated by the chemical analysis of bovine brain coated vesicles following removal of the coat proteins: a high protein content, a high cholesterol/lipid ratio and a high percentage of phosphatidylethanolamine amongst the phospholipids.The study of lipid bilayer organization and dynamics has been performed using the fluorescent probes pyrene and parinaric acid (cis and trans). This has allowed the study of both lateral mobility and rotational motion in the lipid bilayer of the coated and uncoated vesicles.Lateral mobility in the fluid phase of the lipid is slightly reduced by the presence of the clathrin coat, as indicated by the lower diffusion coefficient of pyrene in coated compared with uncoated vesicles.At all temperatures from 6° to 30°C, solid-phase domains, probed by trans parinaric acid, coexist with fluid-phase domains in the lipid bilayer. The temperature dependence of the parinaric acid lifetimes and of their amplitudes strongly suggests that the solid phase domains decrease in size with temperature, both in coated and uncoated vesicles.However, the difference in the value of the anisotropy at long times (r ), between coated and uncoated vesicles (a difference which is more pronounced for cis than for trans parinaric acid), indicates that the presence of the clathrin coat introduces disorder in the surrounding lipids, thus suggesting a possible role of the clathrin in the formation of the pits on the plasma membrane.Abbreviations CVs coated vesicles - UVs uncoated vesicles - TLC thin layer chromatography - DMSO dimethylsulfoxide - DPPC dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine - cis Pna cis parinaric acid - (9,11,13,15-cis-trans-trans-cis) octadecatetraenoic acid - Trans Pna Trans parinaric acid - (9,11,13,15-all-trans) octadecatetraenoic acid     

In Vivo Corrosion Resistance of Ca-P Coating on AZ60 Magnesium Alloy

Magnesium-based alloys are frequently reported as potential biodegradable orthopedic implant materials. Controlling the degradation rate and mechanical integrity of magnesium alloys in the physiological environment is the key to their applications. In this study, calcium phosphate (Ca-P) coating was prepared on AZ60 magnesium alloy using phosphating technology. AZ60 samples were immersed in a phosphating solution at 37 ± 2 °C for 30 min, and the solution pH was adjusted to 2.6 to 2.8 by adding NaOH solution. Then, the samples were dried in an attemperator at 60 °C. The degradation behavior was studied in vivo using Ca-P coated and uncoated magnesium alloys. Samples of these two different materials were implanted into rabbit femora, and the corrosion resistances were evaluated after 1, 2, and 3 months. The Ca-P coated samples corroded slower than the uncoated samples with prolonged time. Significant differences (p < 0.05) in mass losses and corrosion rates between uncoated samples and Ca-P coated samples were observed by micro-computed tomography. The results indicate that the Ca-P coating could slow down the degradation of magnesium alloy in vivo.     

Visualization of Gluten and Starch Distributions in Dough by Fluorescence Fingerprint Imaging

A novel method combining imaging techniques and fluorescence fingerprint (FF) data measurement was developed to visualize the distributions of gluten and starch in dough without any preprocessing. Fluorescence images of thin sections of gluten, starch, and dough were acquired under 63 different combinations of excitation and emission wavelengths, resulting in a set of data consisting of the FF data for each pixel. Cosine similarity values between the FF of each pixel in the dough and those of gluten and starch were calculated. Each pixel was colored according to the cosine similarity value to obtain a pseudo-color image showing the distributions of gluten and starch. The dough sample was then fluorescently stained for gluten and starch. The stained image showed patterns similar to the pseudo-color FF image, validating the effectiveness of the FF imaging method. The method proved to be a powerful visualization tool, applicable in fields other than food technology.     

Visualization of gluten and starch distributions in dough by fluorescence fingerprint imaging

A novel method combining imaging techniques and fluorescence fingerprint (FF) data measurement was developed to visualize the distributions of gluten and starch in dough without any preprocessing. Fluorescence images of thin sections of gluten, starch, and dough were acquired under 63 different combinations of excitation and emission wavelengths, resulting in a set of data consisting of the FF data for each pixel. Cosine similarity values between the FF of each pixel in the dough and those of gluten and starch were calculated. Each pixel was colored according to the cosine similarity value to obtain a pseudo-color image showing the distributions of gluten and starch. The dough sample was then fluorescently stained for gluten and starch. The stained image showed patterns similar to the pseudo-color FF image, validating the effectiveness of the FF imaging method. The method proved to be a powerful visualization tool, applicable in fields other than food technology.     

Method for the preparation of stabile microencapsulated lactic acid bacteria

Summary A method to produce viable and stabile dry microorganisms for food and agricultural purposes was developed. Spray-dried, freeze-dried or liquid culture concentrates of lactic acid-producing bacteria were mixed with various bulking agents to form a homogeneous wet granulation having a water content of 35–60% (w/w). The wet granulation was extruded through a dye onto a spinning plate (350–500 rpm) of a spheronizing device which resulted in the formation of discrete spherical particles. After forming spheres, the aggregate cell particles, both coated and uncoated, were dried to a moisture level of 5–10% using a temperature below the microorganism's optimum growth temperature. The coated and uncoated products were stored at different temperatures and periodically sampled to determine stability. Uncoated cell particles were more stabile at 4°C than at 22°C for 76 days. While both coated (with sodium alginate or carboxymethyl-cellulose) and uncoated particles showed similar stability at 4°C, at higher storage temperatures the applied coating improved the storage stability of the culture particles.     

Vincristine-sulphate–loaded liposome-templated calcium phosphate nanoshell as potential tumor-targeting delivery system

Vincristine-sulfate–loaded liposomes were prepared with an aim to improve stability, reduce drug leakage during systemic circulation, and increase intracellular uptake. Liposomes were prepared by the thin-film hydration method, followed by coating with calcium phosphate, using the sequential addition approach. Prepared formulations were characterized for size, zeta potential, drug-entrapment efficiency, morphology by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), in vitro drug-release profile, and in vitro cell cytotoxicity study. Effect of formulation variables, such as drug:lipid ratio as well as nature and volume of hydration media, were found to affect drug entrapment, and the concentration of calcium chloride in coating was found to affect size and coating efficiency. Size, zeta potential, and TEM images confirmed that the liposomes were effectively coated with calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate nanoshell exhibited pH-dependent drug release, showing significantly lower release at pH 7.4, compared to the release at pH 4.5, which is the pH of the tumor interstitium. The in vitro cytotoxicity study done on the lung cancer cell line indicated that coated liposomes are more cytotoxic than plain liposomes and drug solution, indicating their potential for intracellular drug delivery. The cell-uptake study done on the lung cancer cell line indicated that calcium-phosphate–coated liposomes show higher cell uptake than uncoated liposomes.     

The role of Plasmodium berghei ookinete proteins in binding to basal lamina components and transformation into oocysts.

The ookinete is a motile form of the malaria parasite that travels from the midgut lumen of the mosquito, invades the epithelial cells and settles beneath the basal lamina. The events surrounding cessation of ookinete motility and its transformation into an oocyst are poorly understood, but interaction between components of the basal lamina and the parasite surface has been implicated. Here we report that interactions occur between basal lamina constituents and ookinete proteins and that these interactions inhibit motility and are likely to be involved in transformation to an oocyst. Plasmodium berghei ookinetes bound weakly to microtitre plate wells coated with fibronectin and much more strongly to wells coated with laminin and collagen IV. A 1:1 mixture of collagen and laminin significantly enhanced binding. Binding increased with time of incubation up to 10 h and different components showed different binding profiles with time. Two parasite molecules were shown to act as ligands for basal lamina components. Western blots demonstrated that the surface molecule Pbs21 bound strongly to laminin but not to collagen IV whereas a 215 kDa molecule (possibly PbCTRP) bound to both laminin and collagen IV. Furthermore up to 90% inhibition of binding of ookinetes to collagen IV/laminin combination occurred if parasites were pre-incubated with anti-Pbs21 monoclonal antibody 13.1. Some transformation of ookinetes to oocysts occurred in wells coated with laminin or laminin/collagen IV combinations but collagen IV alone did not trigger transformation. No binding or transformation occurred in uncoated wells. Our data support the suggestion that ookinete proteins Pbs21 and a 215 kDa protein may have multiple roles including interactions with midgut basal lamina components that cause binding, inhibit motility and trigger transformation.     

Transport of Functionally Appropriate Tools by Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella)

Capuchin monkeys (Cebus sp.) are notable among New World monkeys for their widespread use of tools. Like chimpanzees, they use both hammer tools and insertion tools in the wild to acquire food that would be unobtainable otherwise. Recent evidence indicates that capuchins transport stones to anvil sites and use the most functionally efficient stones to crack nuts. We further investigated capuchins’ assessment of functionality by testing their ability to select a tool that was appropriate for two different tool‐use tasks: A stone for a hammer task and a stick for an insertion task. To select the appropriate tools, the monkeys investigated a baited tool‐use apparatus (insertion or hammer), traveled to a location in their enclosure where they could no longer see the apparatus, made a selection between two tools (stick or stone), and then could transport the tool back to the apparatus to obtain a walnut. We incorporated tool transport and the lack of a visual cue into the design to assess willingness to transport the tools and the monkeys’ memory for the proper tool. Six brown capuchins (Cebus apella) were first trained to select and use the appropriate tool for each apparatus. Four animals completed training and were then tested by allowing them to view a baited apparatus and then travel to a location 8 m distant where they could select a tool while out of view of the apparatus. All four monkeys chose the correct tool significantly more than expected and transported the tools back to the apparatus. Results confirm capuchins’ propensity for transporting tools, demonstrate their capacity to select the functionally appropriate tool for two different tool‐use tasks, and indicate that they can retain the memory of the correct choice during a travel time of several seconds.