miR26a和miR939调控H1N1型流感病毒在MDCK细胞中的复制

摘要：【目的】研究发现microRNAs（miRNAs）可以参与调控病毒在宿主细胞内感染和复制的过程。作者研究了两条miRNAs对H1N1型流感病毒在宿主细胞内复制的影响。【方法】构建miR26a和miR939的高效表达载体,并将这两种表达载体转入MDCK细胞中,24 h后用H1N1型流感病毒感染转染后的MDCK (Madin dardy canine kidney) 细胞,接种72 h后,检测流感病毒的复制情况,研究miR26a和miR939对H1N1型流感病毒在MDCK细胞内复制的影响。【结果】实验结果表明,miRNAs的表达载体可以在细胞内高效表达miRNAs,不同的miRNAs对流感病毒在MDCK细胞中复制的调控作用不同, miR26a可以有效抑制流感病毒在MDCK细胞中的复制,而miR939则促进流感病毒在MDCK细胞中的复制的作用。【结论】细胞内miRNAs可以调控H1N1型流感病毒在宿主细胞中的复制过程,本文首次报导miR26a和miR939在流感病毒复制过程中的调控作用。     

非编码RNA在流感病毒与宿主互作过程中的作用

非编码RNA(non-coding RNA,ncRNA)是一类不具备蛋白质编码能力的RNA。随着转录组研究和新一代测序技术的发展,ncRNAs被证明能够调控包含病毒与宿主相互作用在内的诸多生命活动过程。流感病毒是严重威胁人类健康和畜牧业生产的重要病毒,其与宿主互作机制及互作过程中产生的病毒变异情况十分复杂。近年来研究表明,许多ncRNAs在流感病毒与宿主的相互作用过程中发挥重要作用。揭示这些ncRNAs在流感病毒感染、复制等过程中的功能,对于阐明流感病毒的致病机理具有重要意义,也为防控流感提供参考。因此,本文对在流感病毒感染中发挥重要调控作用的ncRNAs进行综述。     

非编码RNA在流感病毒与宿主互作过程中的作用北大核心CSCD

非编码RNA(non-coding RNA,ncRNA)是一类不具备蛋白质编码能力的RNA。随着转录组研究和新一代测序技术的发展,ncRNAs被证明能够调控包含病毒与宿主相互作用在内的诸多生命活动过程。流感病毒是严重威胁人类健康和畜牧业生产的重要病毒,其与宿主互作机制及互作过程中产生的病毒变异情况十分复杂。近年来研究表明,许多ncRNAs在流感病毒与宿主的相互作用过程中发挥重要作用。揭示这些ncRNAs在流感病毒感染、复制等过程中的功能,对于阐明流感病毒的致病机理具有重要意义,也为防控流感提供参考。因此,本文对在流感病毒感染中发挥重要调控作用的ncRNAs进行综述。     

miR-34b调控肠道病毒71型在人横纹肌肉瘤细胞中的复制及机制

【背景】研究发现microRNAs(miRNAs)可以参与调控病毒在宿主细胞内感染和复制的过程。【目的】研究miR-34b对肠道病毒71型(Enterovirus71,EV71)在宿主细胞内的复制及其可能机制。【方法】在人横纹肌肉瘤(Rhabdomyosarcoma,RD)细胞中转染miR-34b mimics和Inhibitor,通过Western blot和Real-time PCR实验检验EV71病毒的复制和表达情况。随后利用双荧光素酶报告系统验证miR-34b与潜在靶点eIF4E的相互作用,并检测miR-34b对RD细胞中eIF4E mRNA表达水平的影响。【结果】miR-34b可以促进病毒在RD细胞中的复制和表达,而miR-34b抑制剂有抑制病毒复制的作用,细胞内miR-34b可以通过作用于靶基因eIF4E调控EV71在宿主细胞中的复制过程。【结论】揭示了miR-34b在EV71病毒复制过程中的调控作用及机制,研究EV71病毒与宿主miRNAs的相互作用机制为进一步阐明EV71病毒感染与复制机理奠定了基础。     

疱疹病毒诱导的凋亡及其机制

人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)和疱疹病毒感染后可表达大量能影响宿主和病毒间相互作用的蛋白质,凋亡是在抗病毒应答和潜伏期起重要作用的一系列连锁酶促反应,它可以被病毒调节,也可以为病毒控制.在感染中,某些疱疹病毒和HIV对凋亡机制所产生的显著变化可能是获得性免疫缺陷综合征(艾滋病)的发病机制.     

miR373和miR542-5p调控肠道病毒71型在人横纹肌肉瘤细胞中的复制

研究发现microRNAs(miRNAs)可以参与调控病毒在宿主细胞内感染和复制的过程。为了揭示miRNAs是否参与肠道病毒71型(Enterovirus 71,EV71)的感染与复制,研究了miRNAs对EV71病毒在宿主细胞内复制的影响。构建miRNAs靶基因筛选系统,在双荧光素酶报告体系的pMIR载体插入病毒基因,如果插入的基因序列能被细胞内的miRNAs靶向调控,报告基因的表达将发生变化。实验发现EV71病毒5′-UTR基因可能是miRNAs的作用靶标。随后利用miRNAs在线分析软件预测并验证可能作用于5′-UTR基因片段的miRNAs。为了研究miRNAs分子对5′-UTR基因的调控作用是否可以体现在EV71病毒的复制过程中,在人横纹肌肉瘤(Rhabdomyosarcoma,RD)细胞中转染miRNAs mimics,利用Western blotting和real-time PCR实验检验EV71病毒的复制和表达情况。实验结果表明,miR373和miR542-5p可以通过作用于EV71病毒5′-UTR基因从而抑制病毒在RD细胞中的复制和表达。细胞内miR373和miR542-5p可以调控EV71在宿主细胞中的复制过程。研究EV71病毒与宿主miRNAs的相互作用机制为进一步阐明EV71病毒感染与复制机理奠定了基础。     

应答流感病毒感染的宿主信号途径研究进展

一系列广泛的宿主细胞信号转导通路可以被流感病毒感染激活. 一些信号转导通路引起宿主细胞的先天免疫应答来抵抗流感病毒, 而一些其他的信号转导通路却是流感病毒实现高效复制所必需的. 本文综述了宿主细胞中由流感病毒感染引起的胞内信号转导, 包括宿主模式识别受体(PRRs)相关信号, PKC, Raf/MEK/ERK和PI3K/Akt信号, 同时对上述信号通路的下游具体效应进行了总结. 这些效应包括宿主细胞对流感病毒的识别, 流感病毒的吸附及入侵, 流感病毒核蛋白的输出, 病毒蛋白的翻译控制, 流感病毒引起的宿主细胞凋亡. 对流感病毒引起的细胞信号转导的研究有助于更加清晰地认识病毒与宿主的相互作用, 也是寻找新的抗病毒靶点和新的抗病毒策略的基础.     

反义寡核苷酸prop5在A549细胞内具有抗流感病毒活性

目的：研究硫代反义寡核苷酸prop5在细胞水平的抗流感活性及其作用机制。方法：cy3标记prop5用于考查人肺腺癌细胞A549对硫代反义寡核酸的摄取;利用实时荧光定量PCR检测流感病毒RNA拷贝数,Western印迹检测prop5对PDCD5蛋白表达和caspase-3蛋白剪切的抑制;利用间接免疫荧光和Western印迹检测prop5对病毒核糖核蛋白复合体（RNP）出核的影响;利用TUNEL检测prop5对流感病毒引起细胞凋亡的抑制作用。结果：流感病毒感染促进A549细胞摄取prop5;prop5下调感染病毒的A549细胞中PDCD5蛋白的表达,并能抑制流感病毒的复制;prop5抑制流感病毒引起的A549细胞的凋亡;prop5抑制病毒RNP出核。结论：prop5在细胞水平具有抗流感病毒活性,其作用机制可能同抑制RNP出核有关;本研究为进一步探讨宿主-病毒相互作用和抗流感药物开发奠定了基础。     

蛋白激酶抑制剂Flavopiridol对流感病毒复制的体外抑制作用

【目的】在细胞水平上研究黄酮类化合物flavopiridol的抗流感病毒效果,初步探索了其抗流感病毒的机制。【方法】首先用Western blot初步检测了在蛋白激酶抑制剂flavopiridol处理下流感病毒NP和M1蛋白的水平,然后通过免疫荧光实验观察了宿主细胞中流感病毒vRNP的合成,又利用噬斑实验检测了flavopiridol对病毒复制的影响,最后通过检测flavopiridol处理的宿主细胞内RNA聚合酶Ⅱ的磷酸化状态和病毒各种RNA的合成量,探究了flavopiridol抑制流感病毒复制的机理。【结果】结果表明,flavopiridol在细胞水平上可以显著抑制流感病毒蛋白质和vRNP的合成及病毒的复制,同时flavopiridol也可以抑制宿主RNA聚合酶Ⅱ大亚基CTD结构域七肽重复序列中的2位丝氨酸的磷酸化来抑制聚合酶的转录延伸活性,显著地减少病毒vRNA的合成。【结论】Flavopiridol可以通过抑制宿主细胞RNA聚合酶Ⅱ的转录延伸活性有效地抑制流感病毒的复制。     

miR432*调控柯萨奇病毒A16型在人横纹肌肉瘤细胞中的复制

【目的】研究发现microRNAs(miRNAs)可以参与调控病毒在宿主细胞内感染和复制的过程。作者研究了miRNAs对柯萨奇病毒A16型(Coxsackievirus A16,CA16)在宿主细胞内复制的影响。【方法】构建miRNAs靶基因筛选系统,在双荧光素酶报告体系的pMIR载体插入病毒基因,如果插入的基因序列能被细胞内的miRNAs靶向调控,报告基因的表达将发生变化。通过实验,发现CA16病毒5'-UTR基因可能是miRNAs的作用靶标。随后利用miRNAs在线分析软件,预测可能作用于5'-UTR基因片段的miRNAs,检测miRNAs对5'-UTR基因片段的作用。为了研究miRNAs分子对5'-UTR基因的调控作用是否可以体现在CA16病毒的复制过程中,在人横纹肌肉瘤(Rhabdomyosarcoma,RD)细胞中转染miRNAs mimics和inhibitors,利用Western blot和real-time PCR实验检验CA16病毒的复制和表达情况。【结果】实验结果表明,miR432*可以促进病毒在RD细胞中的复制和表达。反之,miR432*inhibitor有抑制病毒复制的作用。【结论】细胞内miR432*可以调控CA16在宿主细胞中的复制过程,本研究首次报导miR432*在CA16病毒复制过程中的调控作用。研究CA16病毒与宿主miRNAs的相互作用机制为进一步阐明CA16病毒感染与复制机理奠定了基础。     

MicroRNA Expression and Virulence in Pandemic Influenza Virus-Infected Mice

The worst known H1N1 influenza pandemic in history resulted in more than 20 million deaths in 1918 and 1919. Although the underlying mechanism causing the extreme virulence of the 1918 influenza virus is still obscure, our previous functional genomics analyses revealed a correlation between the lethality of the reconstructed 1918 influenza virus (r1918) in mice and a unique gene expression pattern associated with severe immune responses in the lungs. Lately, microRNAs have emerged as a class of crucial regulators for gene expression. To determine whether differential expression of cellular microRNAs plays a role in the host response to r1918 infection, we compared the lung cellular “microRNAome” of mice infected by r1918 virus with that of mice infected by a nonlethal seasonal influenza virus, A/Texas/36/91. We found that a group of microRNAs, including miR-200a and miR-223, were differentially expressed in response to influenza virus infection and that r1918 and A/Texas/36/91 infection induced distinct microRNA expression profiles. Moreover, we observed significant enrichment in the number of predicted cellular target mRNAs whose expression was inversely correlated with the expression of these microRNAs. Intriguingly, gene ontology analysis revealed that many of these mRNAs play roles in immune response and cell death pathways, which are known to be associated with the extreme virulence of r1918. This is the first demonstration that cellular gene expression patterns in influenza virus-infected mice may be attributed in part to microRNA regulation and that such regulation may be a contributing factor to the extreme virulence of the r1918.H1N1 influenza A viruses continue to pose serious threats to public health, as exemplified by the ongoing 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic. The 1918-1919 H1N1 influenza pandemic was even deadlier in comparison, causing more than 20 million deaths worldwide. The keys to unlocking the mystery of the extreme virulence of the 1918 virus were provided with the reconstruction of the virus (reconstructed 1918 influenza virus [r1918]) by reverse genetics (37). The lethality of r1918 has since been examined in both mouse and macaque models (17, 18). Unlike the nonlethal infections of some other H1N1 influenza virus strains, such as A/Texas/36/91 (Tx/91) or A/Kawasaki/173/01 (K173), the r1918 causes severe and lethal pulmonary disease. We subsequently conducted functional genomics analyses that revealed that the extreme virulence of r1918 was correlated with atypical expression of immune response-related genes, including massive induction of cellular genes related to inflammatory response and cell death pathways (17, 18). In spite of these findings, the mechanistic basis for these atypical gene expression patterns remains unknown.Cellular gene expression is a complicated process and is subject to regulation by many cellular factors. As a group of newly identified cellular regulators, microRNAs are known to regulate the expression of a large number of targets, mainly cellular genes. Through mRNA degradation or translational repression of their targets, microRNAs regulate a wide range of crucial physiologic and pathological processes. For example, miR-34a acts as a tumor suppressor by inhibiting the expression of sirt1 (40), whereas miR-21 contributes to myocardial disease by inhibiting the expression of spry1 (36). By targeting zeb1/2, the miR-200 family members play roles in maintaining the epithelial phenotype of cancer cells (27). Furthermore, Let-7s regulates the expression of hbl-1, which drives the developmental progression of epidermal stem cells (5). Cellular microRNAs also play critical roles in virus-host interactions. The cellular microRNA miR-122 is an indispensable factor in supporting hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication (16), whereas miR-196 and miR-296 substantially attenuate viral replication through type I interferon (IFN)-associated pathways in liver cells (28). Furthermore, miR-125b and miR-223 directly target human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) mRNA, thereby attenuating viral gene expression in resting CD4⁺ T cells (14), and miR-198 modulates HIV-1 replication indirectly by repressing the expression of ccnt1 (34), a cellular factor necessary for HIV-1 replication. More importantly, viruses may promote their life cycles by modulating the intracellular environment through actively regulating the expression of multiple cellular microRNAs. For example, human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) modulates the expression of a number of cellular microRNAs in order to control T-cell differentiation (3). Similarly, human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) selectively manipulates the expression of miR-100 and miR-101 to facilitate its own replication (38). In contrast, the involvement of microRNAs during influenza A virus infection or pathogenesis is largely unknown.To determine whether cellular microRNAs play a role in the host response to influenza virus infection, we performed a systematic profiling of cellular microRNAs in lung tissues from mice infected with r1918 or a nonlethal seasonal influenza virus, Tx/91 (17). We identified a group of microRNAs whose expression patterns differentiated the host response to r1918 and Tx/91 infection. We assessed the potential functions of differentially expressed microRNAs by analyzing the predicted target genes whose expression was inversely correlated with the expression of these microRNAs. Our report provides a new perspective on the contribution of microRNAs to the pathogenesis of lethal 1918 influenza virus infection.     

Semisynthetic teicoplanin derivatives as new influenza virus binding inhibitors: Synthesis and antiviral studies

In order to obtain new, cluster-forming antibiotic compounds, teicoplanin pseudoaglycone derivatives containing two lipophilic n-octyl chains have been synthesized. The compounds proved to be poor antibacterials, but, surprisingly, they exhibited potent anti-influenza virus activity against influenza A strains. This antiviral action was related to inhibition of the binding interaction between the virus and the host cell. Related analogs bearing methyl substituents in lieu of the octyl chains, displayed no anti-influenza virus activity. Hence, an interaction between the active, dually n-octylated compounds and the lipid bilayer of the host cell can be postulated, to explain the observed inhibition of influenza virus attachment.     

Gene Expression Signature-Based Screening Identifies New Broadly Effective Influenza A Antivirals

Classical antiviral therapies target viral proteins and are consequently subject to resistance. To counteract this limitation, alternative strategies have been developed that target cellular factors. We hypothesized that such an approach could also be useful to identify broad-spectrum antivirals. The influenza A virus was used as a model for its viral diversity and because of the need to develop therapies against unpredictable viruses as recently underlined by the H1N1 pandemic. We proposed to identify a gene-expression signature associated with infection by different influenza A virus subtypes which would allow the identification of potential antiviral drugs with a broad anti-influenza spectrum of activity. We analyzed the cellular gene expression response to infection with five different human and avian influenza A virus strains and identified 300 genes as differentially expressed between infected and non-infected samples. The most 20 dysregulated genes were used to screen the connectivity map, a database of drug-associated gene expression profiles. Candidate antivirals were then identified by their inverse correlation to the query signature. We hypothesized that such molecules would induce an unfavorable cellular environment for influenza virus replication. Eight potential antivirals including ribavirin were identified and their effects were tested in vitro on five influenza A strains. Six of the molecules inhibited influenza viral growth. The new pandemic H1N1 virus, which was not used to define the gene expression signature of infection, was inhibited by five out of the eight identified molecules, demonstrating that this strategy could contribute to identifying new broad anti-influenza agents acting on cellular gene expression. The identified infection signature genes, the expression of which are modified upon infection, could encode cellular proteins involved in the viral life cycle. This is the first study showing that gene expression-based screening can be used to identify antivirals. Such an approach could accelerate drug discovery and be extended to other pathogens.     

Dysregulation of cellular microRNAs by human oncogenic viruses – Implications for tumorigenesis

Infection with certain animal and human viruses, often referred to as tumor viruses, induces oncogenic processes in their host. These viruses can induce tumorigenesis through direct and/or indirect mechanisms, and the regulation of microRNAs expression has been shown to play a key role in this process. Some human oncogenic viruses can express their own microRNAs; however, they all can dysregulate the expression of cellular microRNAs, facilitating their respective life cycles. The modulation of cellular microRNAs expression brings consequences to the host cells that may lead to malignant transformation, since microRNAs regulate the expression of genes involved in oncogenic pathways. This review focus on the mechanisms used by each human oncogenic virus to dysregulate the expression of cellular microRNAs, and their impact on tumorigenesis.     

Dihydromyricetin is a new inhibitor of influenza polymerase PB2 subunit and influenza-induced inflammation

Development of new and effective anti-influenza drugs is critical for the treatment of influenza virus infection. The polymerase basic 2 (PB2) subunit as a core subunit of influenza A virus RNA polymerase complex is considered to be an attractive drug target for anti-influenza drug discovery. Dihydromyricetin, as a natural flavonoid, has a wide range of biological activities, but its anti-influenza A virus activity is ambiguous. Here, we found dihydromyricetin could inhibit the replication of a variety of influenza A virus strains. Mechanism studies demonstrated that dihydromyricetin reduced viral polymerase activity via selective inhibition of viral PB2 subunit, and decreased relative amounts of viral mRNA and genomic RNA during influenza A virus infection. The binding affinity and molecular docking analyses revealed that dihydromyricetin interacted with the PB2 cap-binding pocket, functioned as a cap-binding competitor. Interestingly, dihydromyricetin also reduced cellular immune injury by inhibiting TLR3 signaling pathway. Additionally, combination treatment of dihydromyricetin with zanamivir exerted a synergistic anti-influenza effect. Altogether, our experiments reveal the antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities of dihydromyricetin in vitro against influenza virus infection, which provides a new insight into the development of novel anti-influenza drugs.     

microRNAs in Circulation Are Altered in Response to Influenza A Virus Infection in Humans

Changes in microRNA expression have been detected in vitro in influenza infected cells, yet little is known about them in patients. microRNA profiling was performed on whole blood of H1N1 patients to identify signature microRNAs to better understand the gene regulation involved and possibly improve diagnosis. Total RNA extracted from blood samples of influenza infected patients and healthy controls were subjected to microRNA microarray. Expression profiles of circulating microRNAs were altered and distinctly different in influenza patients. Expression of highly dysregulated microRNAs were validated using quantitative PCR. Fourteen highly dysregulated miRNAs, identified from the blood of influenza infected patients, provided a clear distinction between infected and healthy individuals. Of these, expression of miR-1260, -26a, -335*, -576-3p, -628-3p and -664 were consistently dysregulated in both whole blood and H1N1 infected cells. Potential host and viral gene targets were identified and the impact of microRNA dysregulation on the host proteome was studied. Consequences of their altered expression were extrapolated to changes in the host proteome expression. These highly dysregulated microRNAs may have crucial roles in influenza pathogenesis and are potential biomarkers of influenza.     

Interplays between human microbiota and microRNAs in COVID-19 pathogenesis: a literature review

[Purpose]Recent studies have shown that COVID-19 is often associated with altered gut microbiota composition and reflects disease severity. Furthermore, various reports suggest that the interaction between COVID-19 and host-microbiota homeostasis is mediated through the modulation of microRNAs (miRNAs). Thus, in this review, we aim to summarize the association between human microbiota and miRNAs in COVID-19 pathogenesis.[Methods]We searched for the existing literature using the keywords such “COVID-19 or microbiota,” “microbiota or microRNA,” and “COVID-19 or probiotics” in PubMed until March 31, 2021. Subsequently, we thoroughly reviewed the articles related to microbiota and miRNAs in COVID-19 to generate a comprehensive picture depicting the association between human microbiota and microRNAs in the pathogenesis of COVID-19.[Results]There exists strong experimental evidence suggesting that the composition and diversity of human microbiota are altered in COVID-19 patients, implicating a bidirectional association between the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. In addition, SARS-CoV-2 encoded miRNAs and host cellular microRNAs modulated by human microbiota can interfere with viral replication and regulate host gene expression involved in the initiation and progression of COVID-19. These findings suggest that the manipulation of human microbiota with probiotics may play a significant role against SARS-CoV-2 infection by enhancing the host immune system and lowering the inflammatory status.[Conclusion]The human microbiota-miRNA axis can be used as a therapeutic approach for COVID-19. Hence, further studies are needed to investigate the exact molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of miRNA expression in human microbiota and how these miRNA profiles mediate viral infection through host-microbe interactions.     

MicroRNA regulation of human protease genes essential for influenza virus replication

Influenza A virus causes seasonal epidemics and periodic pandemics threatening the health of millions of people each year. Vaccination is an effective strategy for reducing morbidity and mortality, and in the absence of drug resistance, the efficacy of chemoprophylaxis is comparable to that of vaccines. However, the rapid emergence of drug resistance has emphasized the need for new drug targets. Knowledge of the host cell components required for influenza replication has been an area targeted for disease intervention. In this study, the human protease genes required for influenza virus replication were determined and validated using RNA interference approaches. The genes validated as critical for influenza virus replication were ADAMTS7, CPE, DPP3, MST1, and PRSS12, and pathway analysis showed these genes were in global host cell pathways governing inflammation (NF-κB), cAMP/calcium signaling (CRE/CREB), and apoptosis. Analyses of host microRNAs predicted to govern expression of these genes showed that eight miRNAs regulated gene expression during virus replication. These findings identify unique host genes and microRNAs important for influenza replication providing potential new targets for disease intervention strategies.     

Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha Exerts Powerful Anti-Influenza Virus Effects in Lung Epithelial Cells

Previous studies have associated influenza virus-induced expression of inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), with influenza pathogenesis in the human respiratory tract and have suggested that alpha and beta interferons are the first cytokines recruited to counteract such infection. However, we report here that TNF-alpha has powerful anti-influenza virus activity. When infected with influenza virus, cultured porcine lung epithelial cells expressed TNF-alpha in a dose-dependent manner. Expression of TNF-alpha was induced only by replicating virus. TNF-alpha showed strong antiviral activity against avian, swine, and human influenza viruses, and the antiviral effect of TNF-alpha was greater than that of gamma or alpha interferon. These findings suggest that TNF-alpha serves as the first line of defense against influenza virus infection in the natural host.     

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) blocks influenza virus propagation via its NF-kappaB-inhibiting activity

Influenza is still one of the major plagues worldwide. The statistical likeliness of a new pandemic outbreak highlights the urgent need for new and amply available antiviral drugs. We and others have shown that influenza virus misuses the cellular IKK/NF-kappaB signalling pathway for efficient replication suggesting that this module may be a suitable target for antiviral intervention. Here we examined acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), also known as aspirin, a widely used drug with a well-known capacity to inhibit NF-kappaB. We show that the drug efficiently blocks influenza virus replication in vitro and in vivo in a mechanism involving impaired expression of proapoptotic factors, subsequent inhibition of caspase activation as well as block of caspase-mediated nuclear export of viral ribonucleoproteins. As ASA showed no toxic side-effects or the tendency to induce resistant virus variants, existing salicylate-based aerosolic drugs may be suitable as anti-influenza agents. This is the first demonstration that specific targeting of a cellular factor is a suitable approach for anti-influenza virus intervention.