Life Sciences Learning: An Approach That Promotes Progress and Respects Life

Welfare improvements for nonhuman animals should aim to satisfy the needs of visitors as well as those of the animals. Little research has been conducted, however, and existing work is confined to zoos in developed countries. This article reports the behavioral responses of Chinese visitors to environmental enrichment improvements in a zoo enclosure. Visit, viewing, and stopping behaviors significantly increased at the transformed exhibit, indicating that it provoked greater visitor interest. Furthermore, increased intragroup behaviors suggested that the exhibit probably motivated visitors to interact socially. The positive impact of the exhibit changes supports the enrichment efforts taking place in zoos around the world. The changes also provide encouragement for zoos in developing countries such as China because greater visitor interest provides a strong argument and an incentive for improving welfare standards.     

The influence of environmental enrichment on Chinese visitor behavior

Welfare improvements for nonhuman animals should aim to satisfy the needs of visitors as well as those of the animals. Little research has been conducted, however, and existing work is confined to zoos in developed countries. This article reports the behavioral responses of Chinese visitors to environmental enrichment improvements in a zoo enclosure. Visit, viewing, and stopping behaviors significantly increased at the transformed exhibit, indicating that it provoked greater visitor interest. Furthermore, increased intragroup behaviors suggested that the exhibit probably motivated visitors to interact socially. The positive impact of the exhibit changes supports the enrichment efforts taking place in zoos around the world. The changes also provide encouragement for zoos in developing countries such as China because greater visitor interest provides a strong argument and an incentive for improving welfare standards.     

Organochlorine exposure and health effects in stranded Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) and Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardii) from Oregon and southern Washington coasts

Organochlorine (OC) pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been detected in a variety of marine mammal species at levels associated with adverse health effects. Little is known about OC levels and impacts on health in pinnipeds with different life histories. We determined the health and levels of 18 OC pesticides and 16 PCB congeners in blubber samples from 20 Steller sea lions and 39 Pacific harbor seals stranded from Oregon and Southern Washington. The most commonly detected OC at the highest concentration was p,p′- dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE). PCBs were detected in all samples as well. Hypothesis testing indicated that diseased Steller sea lions (males and females combined) had higher contaminant concentrations than healthy Steller sea lions, and diseased Pacific harbor seals had higher concentrations of total OCs than healthy animals. Differences were also noted between diseased and healthy animals when looking at individual sexes of each species. Diseased Steller sea lions had higher mean contaminant levels than diseased harbor seals and healthy Steller sea lions had higher mean contaminant concentrations than healthy Pacific harbor seals. These results show that species differences exist in both contaminant loads and sensitivity to contaminants, which may be due to differences in life histories and physiology.     

Impact of Zoo Visitors on the Fecal Cortisol Levels and Behavior of an Endangered Species: Indian Blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra L.)

This study investigated behavioral activities (resting, moving, aggressive, social, and reproductive behavior) and fecal cortisol levels in 8 individually identified adult male blackbucks during periods of varying levels of zoo visitors (zero, low, high, and extremely high zoo visitor density). This study also elucidated whether zoo visitor density could disturb nonhuman animal welfare. This study analyzed fecal cortisol from the samples of blackbuck by radioimmunoassay and found significant differences (p < .05) for time the animals devoted to moving, resting, aggressive, reproductive, and social behavior on days with high and extremely high levels of zoo visitors. The ANOVA with Duncan's Multiple Range Test test showed that the fecal cortisol concentration was higher (p < .05) during the extremely high (137.30 ± 5.88 ng/g dry feces) and high (113.51 ± 3.70 ng/g dry feces) levels of zoo visitor density. The results of the study suggest that zoo visitor density affected behavior and adrenocortical secretion in Indian Blackbuck, and this may indicate an animal welfare problem.     

Postoccupancy evaluation of staff,visitors, and three species of animals in a zoo setting

Postoccupancy evaluation (POE) was used to assess newly constructed zoo exhibits from the perspective of three user groups: zoo staff, zoo visitors, and the animals. Staff represents a generally understudied user group in zoo-based POEs. We asked staff to rate the animals' space, the visitors' space, and the staff's space at previous and new exhibits. We also compared zoo visitors' ratings of the animals' behavior and environments, overall exhibit impressions, and the time visitors spent viewing previous and new exhibits. Lastly, we compared activity and space use of a Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis), two red pandas (Ailurus fulgens), and one rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) in their previous and new exhibits. Staff rated animal, visitor, and staff areas higher at the new exhibits compared to the previous exhibits. Visitors also rated several factors higher and spent more time at the new exhibits. The most naturalistic exhibit received the most favorable ratings in all categories and animal activity increased visitor stay time. We found that red pandas were less active in their new exhibit, and the Komodo dragon and rhino showed no difference in activity. The red pandas and the Komodo dragon used more available space in their new exhibits; however, we recommend using Electivity index to examine resource preferences for these species, whose enclosure use has been less studied than large mammals. We emphasize the importance of including staff in zoo-based POE, make other recommendations for future POE studies, and discuss various factors that could have influenced our results.     

Relationships between exhibit naturalism,animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese Zoo

Efforts to meet the welfare needs of captive animals (such as the provision of environmental enrichment and naturalistic furnishings) often compromise visitors’ needs (naturalistic exhibits often decrease the visibility of animals on display even though visitors pay to view them). The literature offers different predictions about how zoo visitors respond to decreased animal visibility in naturalistic exhibits but they require further evaluation. Further, visitor research is currently confined to Europe and America and studies outside these areas are limited. This paper investigates the relationships between exhibit naturalism, animal visibility and visitor interest in a Chinese Zoo. Visitor interest was observed at both naturalistic and barren exhibit designs. The study showed that the influence of animal presence on visitor behaviours was similar at both exhibit designs. Further, visitor interest was not compromised at the naturalistic exhibit when animals were not visible. The results demonstrate that the needs of animals and visitors can be balanced at naturalistic exhibits and support the transformation of exhibits to those representing naturalistic environments.     

Impact of zoo visitors on the fecal cortisol levels and behavior of an endangered species: Indian blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra L.)

This study investigated behavioral activities (resting, moving, aggressive, social, and reproductive behavior) and fecal cortisol levels in 8 individually identified adult male blackbucks during periods of varying levels of zoo visitors (zero, low, high, and extremely high zoo visitor density). This study also elucidated whether zoo visitor density could disturb nonhuman animal welfare. This study analyzed fecal cortisol from the samples of blackbuck by radioimmunoassay and found significant differences (p < .05) for time the animals devoted to moving, resting, aggressive, reproductive, and social behavior on days with high and extremely high levels of zoo visitors. The ANOVA with Duncan's Multiple Range Test test showed that the fecal cortisol concentration was higher (p < .05) during the extremely high (137.30 ± 5.88 ng/g dry feces) and high (113.51 ± 3.70 ng/g dry feces) levels of zoo visitor density. The results of the study suggest that zoo visitor density affected behavior and adrenocortical secretion in Indian Blackbuck, and this may indicate an animal welfare problem.     

Siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) and White-Cheeked Gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) Show Few Behavioral Differences Related to Zoo Attendance

The effect of visitors on behavior and welfare of nonhuman animals in the zoo has been an active research topic during the last few decades. Although research has variously shown negative or positive impacts of zoo visitors on animals in captivity, previous primate research at Disney's Animal Kingdom® suggests the importance of visual barriers in allowing animals to cope with large crowds. Examining this further, this study monitored the behavior of white-cheeked gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys) and siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) in large, open exhibits. Behavioral data showed rates of social behavior and percentage of time engaged in solitary behavior did not differ between low and high visitor-attendance days. Both gibbons and siamangs spent more time in areas away from the public on high attendance days. Supporting previous findings, results imply visual barriers and ability to retreat from crowds may have provided these animals with choice and minimized potential negative visitor impact. Future research should focus on the relationship between attendance and actual crowds at exhibits; it should utilize multi-institutional methodologies to control for variance and look for individual and demographic differences between individuals.     

Lion,Ungulate, and Visitor Reactions to Playbacks of Lion Roars at Zoo Atlanta

Felids in captivity are often inactive and elusive in zoos, leading to a frustrating visitor experience. Eight roars were recorded from an adult male lion and played back over speakers as auditory enrichment to benefit the lions while simultaneously enhancing the zoo visitor experience. In addition, ungulates in an adjacent exhibit were observed to ensure that the novel location and increased frequency of roars did not lead to a stress or fear response. The male lion in this study roared more in the playback phase than in the baseline phases while not increasing any behaviors that would indicate compromised welfare. In addition, zoo visitors remained at the lion exhibit longer during playback. The nearby ungulates never exhibited any reactions stronger than orienting to playbacks, identical to their reactions to live roars. Therefore, naturalistic playbacks of lion roars are a potential form of auditory enrichment that leads to more instances of live lion roars and enhances the visitor experience without increasing the stress levels of nearby ungulates or the lion themselves, who might interpret the roar as that of an intruder.     

Influence of Zoo Visitor Presence on the Behavior of Captive Indian Gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus) in a Zoological Park

Visitors to zoos can be a source of potential disturbance and stress to some captive, nonhuman animals in the wild. To determine the influence of visitor presence on captive bison (Bos gaurus gaurus), the study analyzed the behavior of 4 individuals at the Arignar Anna Zoological Park, India. The study often observed the behavior of the animals on visitor-present days and on days when visitors were absent. In the presence of zoo visitors, the bison showed a higher level of intragroup aggression and moving behavior. In contrast, the bison rested more when no visitors were present. The results revealed that the presence of zoo visitors significantly influenced the behavior of captive bison and thereby may have affected their welfare.     

Effect of felid activity on zoo visitor interest

The extent to which the presence of zoo visitors influences animal behavior, and the ways in which animal activity influences visitor interest and perception, are of great interest to zoological parks. Visitors have been variously characterized as being enriching for zoo animals, as being stressors, and generally as influencing behavior in measurable ways. Most studies have focused on primates, and have assumed a “visitor effect” paradigm (i.e., visitors influence animal behavior). Here we present findings from a study of a nonprimate group (felids), and examine the “visitor attraction” model, which assumes that visitors are attracted to active animals. We assessed visitor interest and number at seven cat exhibits at the Brookfield Zoo during the spring and summer of 2002. Data were collected during 1‐min scans of each exhibit at 10‐min intervals. The results indicate that visitor presence per se did not influence cat activity, and that visitor interest was generally greater when cats were active. Various species differences may be explained by visitor familiarity with the species, variations in exhibit design, and species‐specific activity budgets. We conclude that the visitor attraction model may be more appropriate for taxa, such as large cats, that tend naturally to be largely inactive and to respond little (if at all) to visitor disturbances or efforts to engage. The relationship must be viewed as bidirectional: visitors influence animal behavior, and animal behavior influences visitor interest. However, the strength and primary direction of this relationship is likely taxon‐specific. We suggest that a visitor attraction model may be more appropriate not only for felids, but for other taxa with similar behavioral patterns and responses as well. Zoo Biol 22:587–599, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) in open versus closed exhibit designs

Although many studies investigating the impacts of zoo exhibit designs on captive animals exist, none have been performed on how they influence the behavior and welfare of captive Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus). Here, we assess the impact of exhibit design on the activity budget and spatial distribution of Bennett's wallabies. We compared animal behavior in two open exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors permitted) to two closed exhibits (i.e. physical interaction between animals and visitors prohibited). Behavioral data were collected using focal sampling, and spatial distribution was recorded on exhibit maps at regular time intervals. We found a significant increase in feeding and interactive behaviors in closed exhibits in comparison to open exhibits. However, other behaviors such as resting, locomotion, and vigilance did not vary with design. Functional use of space was similar between both designs; however, the effect of habituation may be relevant to consider in future studies. Although some support for visitor effects were present, our study provided no evidence for strong impacts of exhibit design on Bennett's wallaby welfare. Our study emphasizes the need for additional research into the impacts of how zoo environments affect Bennett's wallaby behavior and welfare.     

Assessing the Effects of New Primate Exhibits on Zoo Visitors' Attitudes and Perceptions by Using Three Different Assessment Methods

ABSTRACT

Using three different methods, this study investigated how zoo visitors behaved in response to both old and new exhibits of four nonhuman primate species and how they perceived these primates. On-site observations showed that zoo visitors were more likely to stop in front of new exhibits and spend more time viewing new exhibits compared with old exhibits. Response to an on-site questionnaire also showed that zoo visitors perceived primates in the new exhibits more positively than the same animals in the old exhibits. The results from these two types of local assessment indicate that the attractiveness and holding power of the new exhibits was greater than that of the old. However, the results of a questionnaire given to zoo visitors on leaving the zoo showed that the preference ranks of the visitors for the four primate species did not increase after the new exhibits were established, indicating that the new exhibits did not change the zoo visitors' perception of primates relative to other zoo animals. Using all three assessment methods appears to be of considerable value for the assessment of visitors' perceptions towards new exhibits in terms of both the immediate locality and the zoo as a whole.     

Visitor interest in zoo animals and the implications for collection planning and zoo education programmes

As zoos have sought to further their conservation missions, they have become powerful providers of environmental education. Outside of “formal” education initiatives, such as those designed for school and other organized groups, or structured public talks programmes, much of the learning potential that the zoo has to offer is around the viewing of animals and the response of visitors to them. In this, zoo learning is a very personal construct, develops from the previous knowledge, and experiences and motivations of each individual. In this article, we make the assertion that learning potential, although difficult to quantify, is very much related to the attractiveness of animal species and the interest that visitors show in them. Using standard behaviorist measures of attraction and interest (the proportion of visitors that stop and for how long), we analyzed the relative interest in 40 zoo species held in a modern UK zoo and the variables that are significant in predicting that popularity. Further to this, the suggestion is made that the zoo collection planning process could use such information to make more informed decisions about which species should be housed for their educational value. Taxonomic grouping was found to be the most significant predictor of visitor interest—that is, visitors were far more interested in mammals than any other group—although body size (length), increasing animal activity and whether the species was the primary or “flagship” species in an exhibit or not, were all found to have a significant bearing on visitor interest. Zoo Biol 29:715–731, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Dither: A unifying model of the effects of visitor numbers on zoo animal behavior

Interest in the impact of human presence on the behavior and well-being of zoo and aquarium animals is increasing. Previous work has conceptualized the presence of zoo visitors as having one of three impacts on the behavior of animals in zoos: positive, negative, or neutral. Research suggests the same species may exhibit all three responses under different conditions, calling into question whether the positive/negative/neutral framework is the most useful way of considering visitor impact on animal behavior. Here we present a model of visitor effects that unifies these three predictions. Our model suggests that zoo-goers may provide a “dither effect” for some animals living in zoos. We posit animals may show nonlinear behavioral responses over a range of visitor densities, effectively exhibiting changes in both comfortable and anxiety-like behaviors under different levels of human presence. We tested this model during two COVID-19 related closures at the San Francisco Zoo, studying seven species for evidence of nonlinear relationships between visitor numbers and animal behavior. Our results support the dither effect acting in several species observed.     

Zoo Playgrounds: A Source of Enrichment or Stress for a Group of Nearby Cockatoos? A Case Study

There is increasing evidence that in some circumstances, zoo visitors may be aversive stimuli to nonhuman animals housed in zoos. Yet, most previous research has focused on primates with little attention given to numerous other species who are housed in zoos. The focus animal of this project was the cockatoo, a species who has received minimal attention in zoo-based research. Furthermore, although the influence of the zoo setting has become increasingly important in visitor effect studies, this is the 1st study to quantify the effect of activity at a children's playground on zoo animals. There was an investigation on the effect of a zoo playground on the behavior of citron-crested and Moluccan cockatoos (Cacatua sulphurea citrinocristata and Cacatua moluccensis), as well as the effect of children standing in front of the birds' aviaries. The results showed that in some circumstances, the Moluccan cockatoos retreated from visitors, while the citron-crested cockatoos did not retreat from visitors and became more social in the presence of visitors. These findings highlight the importance of careful selection of species and individual animals to be housed near zoo playgrounds.     

A Case for a Naturalistic Perspective: Response to Lawrence and Bekoff

ABSTRACT

We evaluated three forms of primate free-ranging displays at Singapore Zoo, each with varying restrictions on ranging area and freedom for the primates, as well as visitor proximity. The cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), the white-faced saki (Pithecia pithecia), and the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) displays illustrated differences in primate visibility to visitors, visitor–primate proximity, frequency of visitor–primate interactions, visitor crowd size, and responses. Amongst the three free-ranging displays, the cotton-top tamarins offered the highest visibility, closest proximity between visitors and primates, highest interaction levels, and attracted the largest crowds. However, undesirable interactions occurred most between the cotton-top tamarins and visitors. We found consistently positive visitor perceptions (total n = 464) of all three primate displays in terms of visitor enjoyment (> 95%); naturalistic zoo experience (> 95%); learning experience (> 90%); and the promotion of good welfare (> 90%). Increasingly naturalistic displays of animals in zoos through the free-ranging of animals can have considerable benefits for both zoo visitors as well as animals, and is a display concept that deserves implementation on a wider scale. Design and implementation of such displays should, however, achieve a balance to maximise display value and animal welfare while curtailing the effects of undesirable human–primate interactions through the restriction of visitor–primate proximity.     

INVESTIGATING TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS OF PINNIPEDS IN ALASKA AND WASHINGTON USING STABLE ISOTOPE RATIOS OF NITROGEN AND CARBON

We measured stable-nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) and stable-carbon (δ¹³C) isotope ratios in muscle and hair from 7 northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) from the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, and 27 Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), and 14 harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from the Gulf of Alaska and coast of Washington State, in order to contrast dietary information derived from isotopic vs. available conventional dietary studies. Stable-nitrogen-isotope analysis of muscle revealed that harbor seals were enriched over sea lions (mean δ¹⁵N = 18.6‰vs. 17.5‰) which were in turn enriched over northern fur seals (mean δ¹⁵N = 16.6‰). Trophic segregation among these species likely results primarily from differential reliance on herring (Clupea harengus), Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius), and large vs. small walleye pollock (Theregra chalcogramma). According to their δ¹⁵N values, adult male Steller sea lions showed a higher trophic position than adult females (mean δ¹⁵N: 18.0‰vs. 17.2‰), whereas adult female northern fur seals were trophically higher than juvenile male fur seals (mean δ¹⁵N: 16.5‰vs. 15.0‰). Each of these observed differences likely resulted from differential reliance on squid or differences in the size range of pollock consumed. Three northern fur seal pups showed higher δ¹⁵N enrichment over adults (mean 17.7‰vs. 15.8‰) due to their reliance on their mother's milk. Stable-carbon isotope measurements of hair revealed a cline toward more negative values with latitude. Segregation in hair δ¹³C between Steller sea lions and harbor seals off the coast of Washington (mean δ¹³C: ?13.6‰vs.?15.0‰) reflected the greater association of harbor seals with freshwater input from the Columbia River. Our study demonstrates the utility of the stable isotope approach to augment conventional dietary analyses of pinnipeds and other marine mammals.     

Influence of zoo visitor presence on the behavior of captive Indian gaur (Bos gaurus gaurus) in a zoological park

Visitors to zoos can be a source of potential disturbance and stress to some captive, nonhuman animals in the wild. To determine the influence of visitor presence on captive bison (Bos gaurus gaurus), the study analyzed the behavior of 4 individuals at the Arignar Anna Zoological Park, India. The study often observed the behavior of the animals on visitor-present days and on days when visitors were absent. In the presence of zoo visitors, the bison showed a higher level of intragroup aggression and moving behavior. In contrast, the bison rested more when no visitors were present. The results revealed that the presence of zoo visitors significantly influenced the behavior of captive bison and thereby may have affected their welfare.     

The gap in technology for visitor experience in a zoo: A case study in Indonesia

Technology has routinely been used in zoos to enhance the visitor experience, for public education and for conservation awareness. However, studies into technology-aided exhibits in zoos have thus far been limited to zoos in western society. This article reports on an Indonesian zoo deploying new technology in its exhibits and how visitors interacted with these exhibits. A case study guided both an investigation of the visitors' technology usage of zoo exhibits and zoo implementation of technological processes. Interviews with visitors, zoo staff, and managers were conducted and analyzed and these were supplemented with on-site observations. The results indicated that the majority of zoo visitors did not use the technological applications provided by the zoo. In addition, there was found to be a significant lack of staff engagement in the consultation, design, implementation, and maintenance of the technology. Correlations were found between visitors' level of technology usage, their reading of signage, their day-to-day technology usage, and their conservation knowledge. The findings suggest that an understanding of visitor' behavior, active staff engagement in the development and implementation of new technology, in addition to emotion-inducing interpretation, and purposefully guided interactions, could increase the use of technology at a zoo and thus enhance positive visitor engagement, ultimately resulting in heightened educational as well as conservational outcomes.