Effects of male age on the mating behavior of both sexes in the sorghum plant bug, Stenotus rubrovittatus (Hemiptera: Miridae)

In the sorghum plant bug Stenotus rubrovittatus (Matsumura) (Hemiptera: Miridae), mating behavior consists of male courtship and female mating receptivity. Previous studies have found that female age is correlated with ovary development and that mature females with developed ovaries are more receptive to male courtship. Thus, we examined whether male age affects the mating behavior of both sexes and male accessory gland development. Unmated males 0–9 days after emergence and 3-day-old virgin females receptive to male courtship were studied. Immediately after emergence, only 20 % of the males courted females (n = 25). At 3 days old, 68 % of the males courted females (n = 25), the most active age. In contrast, more than 75 % of the courted females were receptive to the male courtship regardless of male age. These results indicate that only male courtship behavior is affected by male age, although it is not enhanced in proportion to male age. Male accessory glands developed with male age. However, no clear relationship was detected between male courtship behavior and accessory gland development. In S. rubrovittatus, it is difficult to explain male courtship behavior solely from male age and accessory gland development.     

Seizing the Opportunity: Subordinate Male Fowl Respond Rapidly to Variation in Social Context

Dominance affects mating and reproductive success in many group-living species. Potential mechanisms include subordinates being inherently less attractive and social constraints imposed by dominant individuals. To test the former possibility, we measured morphology in 45 male fowl, Gallus gallus , prior to group formation. Males were then assigned to social groups (three males and three females in each). None of the measured traits predicted subsequent social status, suggesting that subordinates were not inherently unattractive. We then manipulated social constraints in each group to test if subordinates were socially constrained. We removed either the alpha (experimental) or the gamma male (control) for 40 min and observed the effect on the beta male's reproductive behavior. Controls accounted for putative group size and disturbance effects, and ensured that the only difference between treatments was the relative dominance of the remaining male. In each trial, we measured the beta male's courtship effort and his mating success, as well as his proximity to females and to the remaining male. Results show that social context did not affect mating success, but had a significant impact on courtship behavior. Beta males courted significantly more often when they had exclusive access to a female, as opposed to when another male was nearby. Furthermore, their courtship effort was higher if the nearby male was a fellow subordinate, as opposed to the dominant male. We conclude that both the proximity and social status of nearby males affects, either directly or indirectly, the courtship efforts of subordinate male fowl.     

Encounter with heavier females changes courtship and fighting efforts of male field crickets Gryllus bimaculatus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)

The effects of mating experience on male mating behavior are mediated by four factors: mating cost, such as resource depletion, perception of mating opportunities, self-perception of attractiveness, and female quality. For example, encountering females might increase male expectations of prospective mating opportunities, while copulation increases self-perception of attractiveness in males. To determine the relative importance of these factors, the effect of mating on the two components of reproductive effort (courtship and fighting effort) in Gryllus bimaculatus was examined. Calling activity before and after encountering females was measured, and copulation success was recorded. Subsequently, the intensity and outcome of male–male fighting behavior was recorded. Female encounter increased calling activity irrespective of copulation, thereby indicating that the perception of mating opportunities is important factor for the males. Changes in courtship effort of males were larger and fighting success was lower when they were previously paired with relatively heavier females. These results indicate that male reproductive effort is also affected by quality of previous mating partners.

     

Social isolation increases male aggression toward females in the field cricket Gryllus bimaculatus

Social isolation has often been reported to facilitate male aggressiveness in various animal species. If social isolation also escalates male aggressive behavior towards females, the mating success of the aggressive males will be low. This study evaluated the effect of social isolation on mating behavior in the field cricket Gryllus bimaculatus, which has traditionally been considered to be an asocial species. The results showed that social isolation from same-sex individuals enhanced male aggressiveness to females, and the mating success of aggressive males was reduced under the experimental conditions. More aggressive males exhibited a longer latency to court than less aggressive males. These results suggest that because male aggressiveness causes a delay in courtship, aggressive males may have reduced mating success. This demonstrated that social relationships are a critical factor affecting male mating success, even if the species is normally considered solitary.     

Influence of previous sexual experience and post-emergence rearing conditions on the mating behavior ofChryseida bennetti

Experiments were carried out to study the possible effects of a (first) sexual experience and prior rearing conditions on the subsequent sexual behavior ofChryseida bennetti (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae), an ectoparasitoid of the bean weevilAcanthoscelides obtectus (Say) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). A clear reduction in latency before male courtship was observed in experienced males. Multiple matings were performed both by naive and experienced males. A tendency to reduce the post-mating courtship behavior duration was observed in experienced males, although this reduction was not significant. Rearing conditions also seem to influence the mating behavior of this species: the number of copulations (with the same female) was reduced when males were reared in groups. On the contrary, isolated males performed multiple matings with both grouped and isolated females, although they mated 3 times only with isolated ones. Again, a reduction of the duration of the post-mating courtship behavior was observed both in grouped males and grouped or isolated females. It seems likely that males that have been reared in groups benefit from a certain influence of social experience that is reflected on their later sexual behavior.     

Sexual Experience Enhances Drosophila melanogaster Male Mating Behavior and Success

Competition for mates is a wide-spread phenomenon affecting individual reproductive success. The ability of animals to adjust their behaviors in response to changing social environment is important and well documented. Drosophila melanogaster males compete with one another for matings with females and modify their reproductive behaviors based on prior social interactions. However, it remains to be determined how male social experience that culminates in mating with a female impacts subsequent male reproductive behaviors and mating success. Here we show that sexual experience enhances future mating success. Previously mated D. melanogaster males adjust their courtship behaviors and out-compete sexually inexperienced males for copulations. Interestingly, courtship experience alone is not sufficient in providing this competitive advantage, indicating that copulation plays a role in reinforcing this social learning. We also show that females use their sense of hearing to preferentially mate with experienced males when given a choice. Our results demonstrate the ability of previously mated males to learn from their positive sexual experiences and adjust their behaviors to gain a mating advantage. These experienced-based changes in behavior reveal strategies that animals likely use to increase their fecundity in natural competitive environments.     

Hormonal independence of courtship behavior in the male garter snake

Garter snakes exhibit a dissociated reproductive tactic in which gonadal activity is minimal at the time of mating, increasing only after the breeding season has ended. Experiments are presented demonstrating that neither short-term nor longterm castration affects courtship behavior in adult male red-sided garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis). So long as males have passed through a low-temperature dormancy period (hibernation), castration either shortly after emergence in the spring, or before entering winter dormancy in the fall, does not prevent the display of intense courtship behavior on emergence. Similarly, males castrated during mating activity the previous spring prior to the annual testicular growth phase actively courted females on emergence from hibernation. Males adrenalectomized and castrated during low-temperature dormancy also courted females on emergence. Hypophysectomy during or before low-temperature dormancy did not prevent males from displaying high-intensity courtship behavior on emergence from hibernation. Treatment with sex steroid hormones, as well as hypothalamic and pituitary hormones, and a variety of neural and metabolic affectors also fails to elicit courtship behavior in noncourting males during the summer. It was concluded that causal mechanisms controlling courtship behavior in the red-sided garter snake are fundamentally different, at least at the physiological level, from those mechanisms described for many laboratory and domesticated species.     

Courtship song, male agonistic encounters, and female mate choice in the house cricket,Acheta domesticus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)

Whether female crickets choose among males based on characteristics of the courtship song is uncertain, but in many species, males not producing courtship song do not mate. In the house cricket,Acheta domesticus, we examined whether a female chose or rejected a male based on his size, latency to chirp, latency to produce courtship song, or rate of the high-frequency pulse of courtship song (“court rate”). We confirmed that females mated only with males that produced courtship song, but we found no evidence that the other factors we measured affected a female’s decision to mate. In addition, we investigated whether the outcome of male agonistic encounters affected the subsequent production of courtship song. In one experiment, we observed courtship and mating behavior when a single female was placed with a pair of males following a 10-min interaction period between the two males. Winners of male agonistic encounters had higher mating success. However, winners and losers of agonistic encounters were not different in their likelihood or latency to produce courtship song or in the number of times they were disrupted by the other male in the pair. In a second experiment, we allowed two males to interact for a 10-min period, but following this interaction period, we placed a female with each male separately and observed courtship and mating behavior. The mating success of winners and losers was not different under these circumstances, and we found no differences between winners and losers in any subsequent courtship or mating behavior examined. We conclude that winning agonistic encounters influences a male’s mating success in ways other than his production of courtship song and this effect is lost when winning and losing males are separated and each is given an opportunity to mate.     

Complex Courtship Behavior in the Striped Ground Cricket, Allonemobius socius (Orthoptera: Gryllidae): Does Social Environment Affect Male and Female Behavior?

Complex courtship in the striped ground cricket, Allonemobius socius, involves a series of behaviors alternating between the sexes. We examined if complex courtship allows either or both genders to evaluate their mate and how mating behavior changes in different social environments. While complex courtship may allow discrimination by both sexes, here only females exhibited a preference. Males did not alter their courtship behavior or change spermatophore size for different size females. In contrast, females initiated copulation more quickly with bigger males possessing bigger spermatophores. In a different social environment (additional male, female, or both), males were less likely to omit courtship songs and female discrimination of mates changed. The distinct differences in male and female behavior suggest that subtle changes in social environment can have important consequences in structuring courtship and mating behavior.     

A Life History Trade-Off Between Flight Ability and Reproductive Behavior in Male Field Crickets (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Gryllus texensis</Emphasis>)

Male field crickets (Gryllus texensis) that differ in flight ability incur a life history trade-off between flight ability and reproduction, where flight ability comes with a male fitness cost. In courtship trials, flight-capable males produced courtship song, a necessary signal for mating success, with a significantly lower probability than flight-incapable males. The trade-off was evident in young males, and a similar trend occurred in older males. Males that lost the ability to fly through histolysis of flight muscles produced courtship song with a similar probability as males incapable of flight for their entire lives. Time of day did not affect the expression of the trade-off. Neither male morph nor time of day influenced female mating behavior.     

Do Psyttalia concolor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) males gain in mating competitiveness from being courted by other males while still young?

The role of male–male courtship in parasitic wasps is not well understood and nothing has been reported on the implication of learning in regard to homosexual behavior in hymenopteran parasitoids. In Psyttalia concolor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a synovigenic koinobiont larval–pupal endoparasitoid of many Diptera Tephritidae of economic importance, courtship and mating attempts are frequently displayed among males. Here we determine whether P. concolor males that are courted while still young by sexually mature males can compete better with other males when they court females. The results showed that P. concolor immature males do not appear to gain from receiving male courtship, but they develop a higher intensity (more wing fanning and shorter latency time) in the successive courtship of the females. The hypothesis that, under some conditions, such higher courtship intensities may increase the probability of gaining a mating advantage is discussed.     

Size-biased Mating in Both Sexes of the Black-horned Tree Cricket, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oecanthus nigricornis</Emphasis> Walker (Orthoptera: Gryllidae: Oecanthinae)

Previous studies on tree crickets have demonstrated female choice of males based on size and courtship feeding but less is known about sexual selection under conditions of direct mating competition. I studied courtship, aggression and mating of the black-horned tree cricket Oecanthus nigricornis (Walker) to test size-related sexual selection under conditions of direct sexual competition. Results show that larger individuals of both sexes mated more frequently than their smaller counterparts, and this was due to the ability of large individuals to out compete rivals. Large males achieved the advantage by aggressively reducing courtship by small males, whereas large females responded to male courtship more quickly but with little aggression. Although there was no evidence here for mate choice, there were advantages for having larger mates; fecundity increased with female size and spermatophores (which females consume after mating) increased with male size. Size of the specialized metanotal courtship gift, however, was not related to male size.     

The mushroom body D1 dopamine receptor controls innate courtship drive

Mating is critical for species survival and is profoundly regulated by neuromodulators and neurohormones to accommodate internal states and external factors. To identify the underlying neuromodulatory mechanisms, we investigated the roles of dopamine receptors in various aspects of courtship behavior in Drosophila. Here, we report that the D1 dopamine receptor dDA1 regulates courtship drive in naïve males. The wild‐type naïve males actively courted females regardless their appearance or mating status. On the contrary, the dDA1 mutant (dumb) males exhibited substantially reduced courtship toward less appealing females including decapitated, leg‐less and mated females. The dumb male's reduced courtship activity was due to delay in courtship initiation and prolonged intervals between courtship bouts. The dampened courtship drive of dumb males was rescued by reinstated dDA1 expression in the mushroom body α/β and γ neurons but not α/β or γ neurons alone, which is distinct from the previously characterized dDA1 functions in experience‐dependent courtship or other learning and memory processes. We also found that the dopamine receptors dDA1, DAMB and dD2R are dispensable for associative memory formation and short‐term memory of conditioned courtship, thus courtship motivation and associative courtship learning and memory are regulated by distinct neuromodulatory mechanisms. Taken together, our study narrows the gap in the knowledge of the mechanism that dopamine regulates male courtship behavior.     

The Influence of Male Body Size and Social Environment on the Mating Behavior of Phallichthys quadripunctatus (Pisces: Poeciliidae)

In some poeciliid fishes, variation in male size is accompanied by differences in mating behavior. Large males are preferred by females and perform courtship displays followed by copulatory thrusts, whereas small males perform copulatory thrusts with few or no displays. This phenomenon has been described in only a few genera and little is known about mating behavior in other poeciliids. Although Phallichthys quadripunctatus males display size dimorphism that has a genetic component, mating behavior of this species has not been documented. We conducted experiments using socially experienced and socially naive males to characterize the mating behavior of this species and to evaluate potential size-dependent differences in behavior. Males were tested with postpartum (presumably receptive) and midcycle (presumably unreceptive) females in different social environments. Whereas neither size class of P. quadripunctatus males performed courtship displays or altered behavior based on female receptivity, large males performed several reproductive behaviors more frequently than small males. This trend was repeatable and occurred in all social environments examined. Some males also attempted to mate with other males, with small males showing a greater tendency to perform this behavior than large males. The manner in which differences in reproductive activity translate into differences in reproductive success must be examined before inferring sexual selection favoring large males in P. quadripunctatus.     

Male Siamese Fighting Fish, Betta splendens, Increase Rather than Conceal Courtship Behavior when a Rival is Present

The impact of social environment on mating success is especially pronounced in species where both intraspecific and interspecific selection influence reproduction, such as the Siamese fighting fish. Males alter male–male interactions when either a male or female audience is present, but how males change their behavior toward a female when a rival male is present is unknown. This study addresses whether males alter their behavior toward a female in a way that would prevent a rival male from interrupting courtship. The behavior of male Siamese fighting fish toward a dummy female was examined under various degrees of visual cover, both in the presence and absence of a rival male, to investigate whether males use concealment provided by the structural environment to their advantage. While males did not use barriers to conceal courtship as hypothesized, males altered their behavior by increasing courtship and monitoring their nest when a rival was visible. This increase in courtship is in contrast to most studies on courtship in the presence of a rival that find a reduction in courtship behavior. Males spent more time opercular gill flaring when no barriers were present, suggesting that males may be trying to court the female and communicate to the rival simultaneously. There was also a trend for aggression toward the female and the rival to decrease as screen length increased. Thus, males compensate for the presence of a rival by adjusting their courtship and aggressive behaviors, which could have important implications for courtship success.     

Exploring the influence of individual courtship behaviors on male mating success in a blow fly

Male courtship behavior and displays influence female mating decisions, and therefore affect mating success in a diverse range of organisms. While there is substantial evidence confirming that females prefer males who invest more in courtship, less attention has been paid to the relative importance of individual behaviors, and the discrete sequences of courtship that result in mating success. The small hairy maggot blow fly, Chrysomya varipes, performs stereotyped courtship behaviors, involving orienting, tapping, waving, arching, wing vibration and mounting. This study aimed to quantify male investment in specific courtship behaviors, and compare courtship investment and behavioral transitions between males who gained mating success (successful males) and those that did not (unsuccessful males). Our results show that mating success was influenced by the behaviors orienting, tapping, arching and mounting. Behavioral transitions revealed a distinct pattern of behaviors leading to a mating attempt, and some differences were observed between successful and unsuccessful males. Overall, our findings suggest that female mating decisions were based on differences in specific male courtship behaviors. This detailed observational study has quantified multiple courtship behaviors for the first time in C. varipes, and highlights the importance of considering multiple behavioral traits when exploring the influence of male courtship on mating success.     

Changes in courtship behaviour following rejection: The influence of female phenotype in Drosophila melanogaster

Courtship can be costly and so selection should favour individual males that reduce courtship towards female types that have a low probability of resulting in copulation. One way males can do this is by associating previous courtship failure with the traits of particular rejecting females. We characterised changes in male Drosophila melanogaster courtship behaviour following a failed mating attempt with one of the four female phenotypes that varied in size, age or mating status. To do this, we assessed individual courtship behaviour for each male presented again with a female of the same phenotype that previously rejected him. Males reduced subsequent courtship most strongly for recently mated (sexually non‐receptive) females. More interestingly, males also significantly reduced courtship activity following a failed mating experience from old females but did not do so for control (large, young, virgin) or small females. As such, males significantly reduced courtship towards both female types possessing chemical cues associated with their phenotype (age and mating status), but not towards a female phenotype based on physical characteristics (body size). Our results suggest that males are able to modify their courtship behaviour following experience, but that they are better prepared to associate chemical traits that may be more reliable indicators of the likelihood of courtship failure.     

The influence of environmental quality on sexual selection in Nauphoeta cinerea (Dictyoptera: Blaberidae)

We examined the impact of environmental conditions on the sexpheromone and mating behavior of the cockroach, Nauphoeta cinerea.Previous research on this species has shown that female behaviorduring courtship reflects female mate choice, male behaviorcorrelates with male social status, and the male sex pheromoneis the character used by females to assess males. In the presentstudy, males and females were allowed to develop from adultemergence to sexual maturity in either a high- or low-qualityenvironment. The environment affected the quantities of sexpheromone components. We found significantly less 3-hydroxy-2-butanoneand 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol, but not 2-methylthiazolidine, inthe pheromone glands of males from a poor environment. Pheromonequality was also affected; the ratios involving 2-methylthiazolidinewere altered, while the ratio 3-hydroxy-2-butanone to 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenoldid not change. Development to sexual maturity under these environmentalconditions also influenced male and female sexual behavior.Male courtship activity reflected environmental influences;males from the low-quality environment took longer to initiatecourtship and spent more time copulating with females from allenvironments. Male quality, as assessed by females, was alsoaffected by their environment. Females were slower to respondto the courtship of males from the poor environment, regardlessof the females' own rearing environments. However, females fromthe low-quality environment also took longer to respond to thecourtship, and required more courtship, regardless of the males'rearing environments. Thus, poor environments also increasefemale choosiness. However, there was only one significant interactionterm, suggesting that the environmental effects are generaland that females do not show adaptive plasticity in mate choice.Studies of sexual selection that consider the effects of variableenvironments on behavior as well as the sexually selected morphologyin other systems are likely to provide new insights into thisevolutionary process     

Distinct preoptic‐BST nuclei dissociate paternal and infanticidal behavior in mice

Paternal behavior is not innate but arises through social experience. After mating and becoming fathers, male mice change their behavior toward pups from infanticide to paternal care. However, the precise brain areas and circuit mechanisms connecting these social behaviors are largely unknown. Here we demonstrated that the c‐Fos expression pattern in the four nuclei of the preoptic‐bed nuclei of stria terminalis (BST) region could robustly discriminate five kinds of previous social behavior of male mice (parenting, infanticide, mating, inter‐male aggression, solitary control). Specifically, neuronal activation in the central part of the medial preoptic area (cMPOA) and rhomboid nucleus of the BST (BSTrh) retroactively detected paternal and infanticidal motivation with more than 95% accuracy. Moreover, cMPOA lesions switched behavior in fathers from paternal to infanticidal, while BSTrh lesions inhibited infanticide in virgin males. The projections from cMPOA to BSTrh were largely GABAergic. Optogenetic or pharmacogenetic activation of cMPOA attenuated infanticide in virgin males. Taken together, this study identifies the preoptic‐BST nuclei underlying social motivations in male mice and reveals unexpected complexity in the circuit connecting these nuclei.     

Influence of group rearing on sexual behavior of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila melanogaster</Emphasis> males

Social interactions are able to strongly influence animal physiology and behavior. As is known, social experience can lead to changes in sexual and aggressive behavior, circadian rhythms and composition of cuticular hydrocarbons in Drosophila. Previously, we have shown that housing Drosophila males in monosexual groups of 20 individuals for 3 days after eclosion leads to a strong and long-term suppression of locomotor activity as revealed at individual testing, in contrast to males kept separately. The present research addressed courtship behavior, and specifically song production, in Drosophila males reared under similar conditions. It was found that rearing males in monosexual groups leads to a suppression of courtship and song production as well as to a simultaneous increase in locomotor activity when tested with a moving female. The latter effect was due to the strong urge of males to avoid interindividual contacts that prevented triggering the courtship ritual. It was suggested that intermale aggression caused by group rearing generates a state similar to conditioned fear.