Occurrence of fumonisin B1 and B2 in corn-based foodstuffs in Taiwan market

Corn-based human foodstuffs purchased in Taiwan were analyzed for fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) using high-performance liquid chromatography. Fifty-two (33.9%) and 32 (20.9%) of 153 samples were found to contain FB₁ (73–2395 ng/g) and FB2 (120–715 ng/g), respectively. The highest frequency of detection and also the highest FB1 concentrations were found in sweetcorn (50%, 1089 ng/g) and cornflour (50%, 608 ng/g), followed by corn snacks (33.3%, 2395 ng/g), miscellaneous corn products (33.3%, 73 ng/g), popcorn (31.8%, 1003 ng/g) and cornflakes (23.5%, 1281 ng/g). 16 corn snacks (= approximately 20.5% of the samples) had an average FB₁ and FB₂ content of 456 and 145 ng/g, respectively, while six sweetcorn (= 25%) samples were contaminated with an average of 400 ng/g of FB₁ and 65 ng/g of FB₂. Of the 22 pop-corn samples examined, 7 had an average of 347 ng/g and 116 ng/g of FB₁ and FB₂, respectively. During an analysis of the distribution pattern for the combined fumonisin levels of FB₁ and FB₂, it became apparent that more than 69% of tested samples had fumonisin concentrations below 100 ng/g, while 11.1% (or 17 samples) contained in excess of 600 ng toxins per g. These results clearly illustrated that commercially available corn-based foodstuffs for human consumption in Taiwan are frequently contaminated with FB₁ and FB₂.This revised version was published online in October 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Natural occurrence of fumonisins and their correlation to Fusarium contamination in commercial corn hybrids growth in Argentina

Fifty commercial corn hybrids with different endosperm characteristics, vegetative cycle length and cross class grown in the same geographical area (Cordoba Province, Argentina) were analysed for fumonisin accumulation. All hybrids analysed showed fumonisin B₁ and B₂ contamination ranging from 185 to 27,050 ng/g for FB₁ and from 40 to 9950 ng/g for FB₂. Although most of the hybrids analysed had flint-type endosperm, two hybrids with dent-type endosperm (e.g. Prozea 10 and AX 746) showed the highest level of fumonisin (37,000 ng/g) and more FB₂ than FB₁ (FB₂/FB₁ ratio 2.42), respectively. There was no correlation between fumonisin concentration and length of the vegetative cycle. Among 18 hybrids examined for Fusarium species contamination there was also no correlation between fumonisin contamination and the level of infection with Fusarium species (Section Liseola). Eighteen hybrids showed fumonisin levels lower than 1000 ng/g. This result suggests that there is some possibility of selecting hybrids resistant or less susceptible to fumonisin and Fusarium contamination.     

Mycoflora and fumonisin-producing strains ofFusarium moniliforme in mixed poultry feeds and component raw material

In a survey of the mycoflora and mycotoxins in foods and feeds, 66 samples of mixed poultry feeds and some component raw materials were investigated. Fungal counts ranged from < 10² to 1.3 × 10⁶ CFU/g.Fusarium spp. counts ranged from 10² to 1.0 × 10⁶ CFU/g. TheFusarium spp. strains isolated were screened for their potential to produce fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) in maize cultures. Samples and maize cultures were analysed for FB₁ and FB₂ using TLC and fluorescamine-derivative HPLC. No fumonisins were detected in the samples (<6 ppm).Fusarium moniliforme was isolated in 59.1% of samples, and 97.4% of the strains produced FB₁ and 79.4% of strains produced FB₂ in maize cultures. Some isolates produced higher FB₁ and FB₂ levels than the reference strainF. moniliforme MRC 826.     

Production of fumonisins byFusarium species of Taiwan

Twenty-nineFusarium species isolated from various sources in different districts of Taiwan were tested for their ability to produce fumonisins in corn cultures. OnlyFusarium moniliforme produced fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂). The finding that the other 28Fusarium species produced neither FB₁ nor FB₂ is preliminary because only one strain per species was studied. The detection of FB₁ and FB₂ in cultures ofF. moniliforme was demonstrated by TLC and HPLC, and FB₁ was further confirmed by mass spectrometry. In a separate experiment, in which 38 strains ofF. moniliforme were tested for fumonisins, approximately 66% (25/38) produced FB₁ and/or FB₂. Of the 25 strains, 14 produced only FB₁ and 11 produced both FB₁ and FB₂, and the amounts of FB₁ and FB₂ produced by different strains varied greatly. This is the first report that fumonisins are found in corn cultures experimentally infected withF. moniliforme strains from Taiwan. It is safe to assume that fumonisin producing strains ofF. moniliforme are widely distributed among the economic crops such as corn, rice, sugarcane, and sorghum throughout the Island.Abbreviations FB₁ Fumonisin B₁ - FB₂ Fumonisin B₂ - OPA o-phthalidialdehyde     

Occurrence of Fumonisin B<Subscript>1</Subscript> in Corn from the Main Corn-Producing Areas of China

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is the most abundant of the fumonisin mycotoxins, mainly produced in maize by F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum. A total of 282 corn samples harvested in 2005 from six provinces, the main corn-producing areas of China, were analyzed for FB₁ using high-performance liquid chromatography. All samples except one were (99.6%) positive for FB₁ at levels varying from 3 to 71,121 ng/g with mean and median levels for all samples of 6,662 and 1,569 ng/g, respectively. During an analysis of the distribution pattern for FB₁, it became apparent that 43.6% of tested samples had FB₁ concentrations below 1,000 ng/g, while 25.2% contained in excess of 5,000 ng/g. The average exposure to FB₁ (1.1 μg/kg body weight/day) is within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 μg/kg body weight/day set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.     

Fumonisin and Beauvericin Induce Apoptosis in Turkey Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes

Fumonisins, a family of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium verticillioides (synonym Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon) and F. proliferatum, have been associated with various deleterious effects in different animal species. Serological, hematological and pathological effects and mortality have previously been observed in broiler chicks fed F. proliferatum culture material containing known concentrations of fumonisin, moniliformin and beauvericin. Turkey peripheral blood lymphocytes were exposed in vitro for 72 hours to fumonisin B₁(FB₁), fumonisin B₂(FB₂), hydrolyzed fumonisin B₁ (HFB₁), moniliformin and tricarballylic acid (TCA) (0.01-25 g/ml). A decrease in cell proliferation, as determined by the MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide] bioassay, occurred in the order: FB₂ > FB₁ > HFB₁, with IC₅₀ = 0.6 M, 1 M and 10 M, respectively. Internucleosomal DNA fragmentation and morphological features characteristic of apoptosis were observed following exposure to fumonisin B₁ and beauvericin; cytoplasmic condensation and membrane blebbing were seen by light microscopy. Tricarballylic acid and moniliformin did not interfere with cell proliferation. Results suggested that fumonisin B₁ and beauvericin may affect immune functions by suppressing proliferation and inducing apoptosis of lymphocytes.     

Effect of<Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> digestion on fumonisin B<Subscript>1</Subscript> in corn flakes

Low levels of fumonisins have been found frequently in corn based breakfast cereals and can occur bound to protein and other matrix components.In vitro digestion of two samples of corn flakes was carried out under "fed conditions." Fumonisins were measured as o-phthaldialdehyde/mercaptoethanol derivatives by LC-fluorescence. One sample of corn flakes (FN12) had high concentrations of fumonisin B₁ (FB) (average 125 ng/g) and total bound FB₁, (TB FB₁) (average 92 ng/g) and the other (FN11) had a low level of free FB₁ (average 29 ng/g) and no detectable TB FB₁. After incubation of the samples with gastrointestinal tract solutions simulating saliva plus stomach and duodenal juices, chyme was analysed for FB₁, hydrolyzed FB₁ (HFB₁) and partially hydrolyzed fumonisin B₁ (PHFB₁). The bioaccessibility (percentage of FB₁ released from corn flakes into chyme) was 38-78% for incurred FB₁ in FN12, 8-54% for incurred plus spiked FB₁ in FN12, and 19-66% for incurred plus spiked FB₁ in FN11. HFB₁ and PHFB₁ were not detected. If free FB₁ was first extracted from sample FN12, no FB1 was detected in the chyme, indicating no contribution from TB FB₁. Concentrations were corrected for method recovery of FB₁ or, for bound FB₁, partial method recovery of HFB₁ Presented at the XIIth IUPAC International Symposium on Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins, Istanbul, Turkey, 21–25 May, 2007     

Fumonisins: Isolation,chemical characterization and biological effects

The fumonisin B mycotoxins (FB₁ and FB₂) have been purified and characterized from corn cultures of Fusarium moniliforme strain MRC 826. Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁, the major fumonisin produced in culture, has been shown to be responsible for the major toxicological effects of the fungus in rats, horses and pigs. Recent investigations on the purification of compounds with chromatographic characteristics similar to FB₁ have led to the identification of two new fumonisins, FB₃ and FB₄. Fumonisins A₁ and A₂, the N-acetyl derivatives of FB₁ and FB₂ respectively, were also purified and shown to be secondary metabolites of the fungus. Short-term carcinogenesis studies in a rat liver bioassay indicated that over a period of 15 to 20 days, at dietary levels of 0.05–0.1%, FB₂ and FB₃ closely mimic the toxicological and cancer initiating activity of FB₁ and thus could contribute to the toxicological effects of the fungus in animals. In contrast, no biological activity could be detected for FA₁ under identical experimental conditions. These studies and others have indicated that the fumonisin B mycotoxins, although lacking mutagenicity in the Salmonella test or genotoxicity in the DNA repair assays in primary hepatocytes, appear to induce resistant hepatocytes similar to many known hepatocarcinogens.     

Lymphocyte cytotoxicity and erythrocytic abnormalities induced in broiler chicks by fumonisins B1 and B2 and moniliformin fromFusarium proliferatum

Peripheral blood lymphocytes were isolated from broiler chicks that had ingested feed amended with autoclavedFusarium proliferatum culture material containing fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) and moniliformin. Lymphocyte viability was determined for birds that were placed on amended rations at day 1 or day 7 of age at three different levels of mycotoxins, ranging from 61–546 ppm FB₁, 14–94 ppm FB₂ and 66–367 ppm moniliformin. Reduction of the tetrazolium salt, MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide], to yield MTT formazan, based on mitochondrial metabolic activity, was used to assess cell viability. Lymphocyte cytotoxic effects were observed in all treatment groups on day 21; chicks that started on amended feed at day 1 of age were affected more than those that started at day 7. Abnormal erythrocytes resembling early stages of erythroblasts were observed in peripheral blood from test chicks. Abnormally shaped red cells (poikilocytes) having a spindle-shape with one or both ends pointed were present. Some red cells appeared to be undergoing mitosis. Both reduced lymphocyte viability and abnormal erythrogenesis occurred in chicks given feed amended withF. proliferatum culture material containing FB₁, FB₂ and moniliformin.     

Zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisins in mixed-feed for laying hens

Fusarium toxins are secondary metabolites produced byfungi of these genera in many commodities under certain conditions. A study was carried out to investigate the co-occurrence of zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FB₁ and FB₂) in 52 samples of mixed-feed for poultry contaminated withFusarium verticillioides. The zearalenone and deoxynivalenol were checked using immunoaffinity column and the extraction of fumonisin was performed by strong anion exchange (SAX) solid phase column. Detection and quantification were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The limit of detection was 5 μg/kg for ZEN, 100 μg/kg for DON and 50 and 100 μg/kg for FB₁ and FB₂ respectively.Fusarium toxins were detected in 20 samples. Sixteen samples were positive for ZEN (30.7%) presenting levels that ranged from 7.4 μg/kg to 61.4 μg/kg (mean=27.0 μg/kg). 13.5% of the samples presented contaminations of DON, with levels ranging from 100.0 μg/kg to 253 μg/kg (mean=l18.07 μg/kg). FB₁ was detected in 19.2% of samples, with levels ranging from 50.0 μg/kg to 110.0 μg/kg (mean=73.6 μg/kg). FB2 was not detected in any sample. In positive samples simultaneously contamination with two or three mycotoxins were detected in 9 of them (17.3%).     

Developmental toxicity of fumonisin in Syrian hamsters

The effects of fumonisin on development of Syrian hamster fetuses were studied using fumonisin B₁ and B₂ extracted fromFusarium moniliforme corn-culture and purified fumonisin B₁. A significant increase in litters with fetal deaths occurred with the high doses of purified (18 mg FB₁/kg) and culture-extracted (18 mg FB₁ plus 4.5 mg FB₂) fumonisin. It is concluded that prenatal exposure to fumonisin on days 8 and 9 of gestation is detrimental to fetal hamster survivability but does not induce clinical maternal intoxication at these doses. Equivalent doses of fumonisin B₁, whether from culture-extract or pure solution produced similar results.     

Mutagenic potentials of fumonisin contaminated corn following ammonia decontamination procedure

Naturally contaminated corn implicated in an outbreak of equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM) in southeastern Arizona was analyzed for mutagenic potential using the Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay before and after treatment with the ammonia procedure. Crude acetonitrile: water (1+1) extracts of high-pressure/ambient temperature (HP/AT) ammonia decontaminated, HP/AT plus low pressure/high temperature (LP/HT), and non-ammoniated fumonisin contaminated corn were tested for mutagenic potentials. Relatively pure (approx. 90%) fumonisin B₁ standard was also tested for comparison purposes. The results of this experiment indicate that there was no mutagenic potential for the fumonisin B₁ standard at the concentrations tested (100 g/plate). Also, neither the naturally-contaminated corn nor the ammonia decontaminated samples elicited a positive mutagenic response. Fumonisin B₁ levels, as determined by HPLC methods, were reduced by an average of 79% via the ammonia decontamination process. It is encouraging to note that, while further work is necessary to increase the efficacy of the ammonia process to reduce fumonisin levels, the ammonia process did reduce fumonisin levels and no mutagenic potentials were apparent in the treated corn.Abbreviations HP/AT high pressure/ambient temperature - LP/HT low pressure/high temperature - ELEM equine leukoencephalomalacia - FB₁ fumonisin B₁ - FB₂ fumonisin B₂     

Natural occurrence of aflatoxin andAlternaria mycotoxins in oilseed rape from Catalonia (Spain): Incidence of toxigenic strains

During an investigation of the mycoflora on oilseed rape, the predominant fungal species present in 20 samples collected from Catalonia (Spain) wereAlternaria alternata (Fries) Keissler,Penicillium spp. andAspergillus flavus. None of the 20 samples analyzed presented contamination byAlternaria mycotoxins (tenuazonic acid, alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, altertoxin I and altertoxin II). Only aflatoxin B₁ was detected in 1 of the 20 samples analyzed, with a concentration of 0.25 ppb. Of the 40Aspergillus flavus strains isolated from oilseed rape samples, only 3 revealed aflatoxigenic capacity. None of thePenicillium spp. isolated from oilseed rape samples revealed mycotoxigenic capacity (citreoviridin, griseofulvin, citrinin, patulin and penicillic acid).     

Human Dietary Exposure to Fumonisin B1 from Iranian Maize Harvested During 1998–2000

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is the most abundant of the fumonisin mycotoxins, mainly produced in maize by F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum. A previous study on the FB1 contamination of maize harvested in Mazandaran and Isfahan Provinces of Iran in 1998 and 1999 demonstrated contamination in both provinces. This present study was undertaken to further investigate the variation in levels of contamination and to estimate possible levels of human exposure to fumonisins in Iran. The mean level of FB₁ in 49 visually healthy maize samples collected from Mazandaran Province during 2000 was 6.14 mg/kg, which is higher than that found during 1998 and 1999 (2.27 and 3.18 mg/kg, respectively). Although these levels are higher than the Iranian legislative limits for fumonisins in maize intended for humans, the relatively low estimated consumption of maize in Iran (3.3 g/person/day) implies that average exposures (0.011 and 0.215 μg/kg body weight/day in Isfahan and Mazandaran, respectively) are within the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake of 2 μg/kg body weight/day set by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Nevertheless, certain sections of the population who may consume higher amounts of maize or who may replace all or some of their consumption of other cereals with maize, could well exceed this limit.     

Mortality in broiler chicks on feed amended withFusarium proliferatum culture material or with purified fumonisin B1 and moniliformin

Two hundred twenty-eight male chicks (Columbia × New Hampshire) were given feed amended with autoclaved culture material (CM) ofFusarium proliferatum Containing fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) and moniliformin in 3 separate feeding trials. Purified FB₁ and moniliformin were given separately and in combination in a fourth feeding trial. Birds were given amended rations at day 1 (Trial 1 and 4), day 7 (Trial 2), and day 21 (Trial 3) and their respective ration was given for 28 days (Trial 1), 21 days (Trial 2), 7 days (Trial 3), and 14 days (Trial 4). FB₁ concentrations were 546, 193, and 61 ppm; FB₂ were 98, 38 and 14 ppm; and moniliformin were 367, 193, and 66 ppm in the first 3 feeding trial regimens. Chicks in Trial 4 were given dietary concentrations of purified FB₁ at 274 and 125 ppm, and moniliformin at 154 and 27 ppm. FB₁ and moniliformin, both alone and in combination, produced dose-responsive clinical signs, reduced weight gains and mortality in chicks. Age of birds given amended feeds had little difference in the clinical response; however, those given the rations from days 7 or 21 were slightly less susceptible than those given rations beginning at 1 day of age. Additive effects were noted when the toxins were given in combination. When toxins were given separately, adverse effects took longer to occur. A system to monitor pattern and rate of defecation (RD) was developed for assessing the chicks' approach to feed, water and heat source as illness progressed. Our results indicate that chicks fed corn heavily infected withF. proliferatum under field conditions could suffer acute death similar to that described for spiking mortality syndrome during the first 3 weeks of age.     

AAL Toxins,funionisms (biology and chemistry) and host-specificity concepts

The AAL toxins and the fumonisins (FB₁ and FB₂) are structurally related and produced respectively by Alternaria alternata f.sp. lycopersici and Fusarium moniliforme. AAL toxin is characterized as a hostspecific toxin, toxic to tomato, whereas fumonisin B₁ causes equine leukoencephalomalacia. FB₁ and FB₂ were biologically active in susceptible tomato tissue (Earlypak-7) and animal tissue culture (rat hepatoma H4TG and dog kidney MDCK). Conversely, AAL toxin was also active in the rat and dog tissue culture cells. Both fungi produce toxin/s in culture that cause death in rats; these toxins are other than AAL and fumonisin. The peracetylated derivatives of AAL and FB₁ are biologically inactive in both the tomato bioassay and the animal tissue culture systems. Acetylation of the amine renders AAL inactive. The hydrolysis product of AAL (pentolamine) is toxic to the susceptible tomato line whereas the pentolamine of fumonisin is not.AAL and FB₁ can be analyzed by Continuous Flow Fast Atom Bombardment (CFFAB) and Ionspray Mass Spectrometry (ISM), both sensitive to the picomole range. The N-acetyl of the TFA hydrolysis product of AAL and FB₁ is determined by comparing the fragment ions at m/z 86 and 140 for FB₁ and 72 and 126 for AAL.Published as paper No. 19,598 of the contribution series of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station based on research conducted under Project 22–34H, supported by HATCH funds.     

Fumonisin production by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> species isolated from freshly harvested corn in Iran

Fifty-one strains of Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum isolated from corn collected from four different geographic areas in Iran, namely Fars, Khuzestan, Kermanshah and Mazandaran (an endemic oesophageal cancer (OC) area) were evaluated for their ability to produce fumonisins B₁ (FB₁), B₂ (FB₂) and B₃ (FB₃) in corn culture. Fumonisin levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. All tested strains of F. verticillioides and F. proliferatumproduced fumonisins within a wide range of concentrations, 197–9661 g/g, 18–1974 g/g, and 21–1725 g/g for FB₁, FB₂, and FB₃, respectively. The highest mean concentrations of FB₁, FB₂, and FB₃ were 3897, 806 and 827 g/g, respectively. Overall, 61% of the F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum strains produced higher levels of FB₃ than FB₂. The mean ratios of FB₁:FB₂, FB₁:FB₃ and FB₁:total fumonisins were 8, 7 and 0.7 for F. verticillioides and 5.7, 10.7 and 0.7 for F. proliferatum, respectively. Significant differences in some of the meteorological data (rainfall, relative humidity and minimum temperature) from the four provinces were observed. Fumonisin levels produced by F. verticillioides strains isolated from Khuzestan province (tropical zone) were significantly (P < 0.01) higher than the other three provinces. This is the first report of the fumonisin-producing ability of F.verticillioides and F. proliferatum strains isolated from corn harvested from different geographic areas in Iran.     

Temporal and dose-response features in swine fed corn screenings contaminated with fumonisin mycotoxins

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁), a mycotoxin produced byFusarium moniliforme andF. proliferatum, induces liver damage and pulmonary edema in swine. We examined the temporal and dose-response features of FB₁ toxicosis in male weanling crossbred pigs fed nutritionally balanced diets, containing corn screenings naturally contaminated with fumonisins, for 14 days. Total fumonisins (FB₁ and FB₂) in diets 1 through 6 were assayed at 175, 101, 39, 23, 5, and <1 ppm (below detectable concentrations), respectively. Clinical signs, serum biochemical alterations, and morphologic changes were evaluated. Pigs were weighed, and bled for hematologic and clinical chemistry evaluation on days 5 and 14. They were euthanized on day 14, or earlier if respiratory distress was observed. Respiratory distress developed in 3/5 pigs fed diet 1 between days 4 and 6 due to severe pulmonary edema and pleural effusion. Histologic evidence of hepatic injury was present in all pigs fed diets 1 and 2, 3/5 on diet 3, and 1/5 on diet 4. Serum bilirubin and cholesterol concentrations, gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and arginase (ARG) activities were elevated in pigs fed diets 1 and 2. Based on liver histopathology, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) for fumonisin toxicity in swine was <23 ppm total fumosins for the 14-day period. Based on regression analyses of the clinical chemistry profiles at 14 days, the NOAEL was <12 ppm, with ALP being the most sensitive parameter. In conclusion, pulmonary edema occurred only at the highest fumonisin concentration (175 ppm), while liver damage occurred at much lower concentrations with a NOAEL of <12 ppm.Abbreviations ALP alkaline phosphatase - ALT alanine aminotransferase - ARG arginase - AST aspartate aminotransferase - ELEM equine leukoencephalomalacia - FB₁ fumonisin B₁ - GGT gamma-glutamyl transferase - NOAEL no observed adverse effect level     

Occurrence of Fusarium Mycotoxin Fumonisin B1 and B2 in Animal Feeds in Korea

The objective of this study was to monitor the occurrence and levels of fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) and fumonisin B₂ (FB₂) in animal feeds distributed in South Korea in 2011. The contamination levels of FB₁ and FB₂ were investigated in 150 samples of compound feeds and in 40 samples of feed ingredients. The contamination rate of feed ingredients with FB₁ and FB₂ was 50 and 40 %, respectively. FB₂ was only found in samples contaminated with FB₁. Of the compound feeds, 85 % were contaminated by FB₁ and 47 % were contaminated by FB₂. The highest contamination rate of FBs was observed in compound feeds for cattle (FB₁: 100 %; FB₂: 80 %), followed by poultry feed (FB₁: 78 %; FB₂: 40 %) and swine feed (FB₁: 76 %; FB₂: 22 %). The highest contamination level (14,600 ng/g) for FB₁ were found in poultry broiler feed (early feeding period) samples, which had 82 % contamination rate (9/11), and the highest level of FB₂ (2,280 ng/g) was found in feed for fatting calves,which had a contamination rate of 100 %.     

Fumonisin mycotoxins in human hair

This study shows for the first time the accumulation of fumonisin mycotoxins in human hair of population clusters exposed to contaminated maize, and thus the feasibility of human hair analysis for the assessment of past fumonisin exposure. Composite hair samples were obtained from the Bizana, Butterworth and Centane districts within the Transkei region of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Following methanol extraction and strong anion exchange clean up, the fumonisins FB₁, FB₂ and FB₃ were detected using high performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS). Hair from Centane and Butterworth showed mean levels of FB₁ of 26.7 and 23.5 μg kg^?1 hair, respectively. FB₂ was only detected in hair from Centane and in one sampling point in Butterworth, with mean levels of 6.5 and 5.7 μg kg^?1 hair, respectively. Hair samples from Bizana, on the other hand, were found to contain higher levels of FB 1 (mean 33.0 μg kg^?1 hair) and FB 2 (mean 11.1 μg kg^?1 hair). No samples contained more than trace levels of FB 3 . Recoveries from spiked hair samples using this method ranged from 81% to 101%, demonstrating the applicability of hair analysis in assessing human exposure to fumonisin mycotoxins.