Introduction by the Chairman

Tropical forest ecosystems are the world's richest and most complex habitats and globally recognised for their importance in the human survival. Birds constitute an important component of tropical forests, not only in terms of their diversity, but also in terms of their role in the ecosystem. However, despite great advances made in our knowledge and protection of tropical forest birds, our efforts remain inadequate, particularly in Africa. African forests are being cut down by a very high rate (4 million hectare disappearing per year), putting at risk so many bird species, that the first challenge for research and conservation is to help managers in identifying priorities.

The relationship emphasised by the theme of the PAOC 9 “Birds, Habitats and People” is well examined during the symposium on the “Conservation of Forest Birds in Afiica”. The papers presented cover a wide range of topics. A broad scale analysis on the congruence between forest birds and mammals (Neil et al.) compares species richness and species endemism in the Afrotropical region. Larison et al. compare avian biodiversity of montane forest birds of northern Cameroon and Bioko island and evaluate their conservation potential based on species richness and human impacts and attitudes. A similar approach is done by Waiyaki and Bennun on birds of coastal forests in southern Kenya, while Math et al. examine the distribution the east Coast Akalat Sheppardia gunningi sokokensis in one single forest of Arabuko-Sokoke. The major threat to tropical forests today is the selective logging. The effect of this issue is presented by Dranzoa in a case study from Uganda's Kibale National Park.

Results of these papers show the necessity to take into account the particular requirements of all species in the management of the forest, the socio-cultural considerations in implementation of conservation measures, the necessity of policy changes in some cases and the necessity of further research.     

Conserving the Himalayan forests: approaches and implications of different conservation regimes

The conservation of Himalayan forests is big concern in view of global agenda. Many studies in this endeavor reported that the rate of forests degradation is posing a severe threat to the landscape and existing biodiversity in the Himalayas. Currently there many conservation approaches exists and of them four are widely recognized (1) Conservation through traditional religious beliefs “traditional conserved forests” (TCF); (2) Conservation through governmental planning and schemes “government conserved forests” (GCF); (3) Conservation through creation of protected areas (PAF); and (4) Conservation through community efforts “community conserved forests” (CCF). Our hypothesis in this direction says that all the conservation approaches lead to same results concerning to forest conservation. To testify our hypothesis we have studied the forests of each conservation regimes and evaluated them based on the identified indicators. We have done empirical studies and following the cloud-free satellite data were used for last three decades (such as Multi-Spectral Scanner, Linear Imaging and Self Scanning, and Enhanced Thematic Mapper ) to study a change in vegetation dynamics of the mountain forests in multi-temporal dimension. Our research concluded that community conservation approach have greater significance for biodiversity conservation and management in the Himalayan region. Here we support the model of CCF for forest ecosystem conservation, alongside the sustainable livelihood of the mountain societies. But every conservation regimes has its own importance in viewpoint of the particular objectives. Therefore, we suggests advancement and revision of PAF and GCF however, some elements of CCF can be introduced in TCF for making up it more sound in view of rapid socio-economic and cultural changes taking place in the communities. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Towards more effective integration of tropical forest restoration and conservation

Conservation and restoration interventions can be mutually reinforcing and are converging through an increased focus on social dimensions. This paper examines how to more effectively integrate the complementary goals of conservation and restoration of tropical forests. Forest conservation and restoration interventions are integral components of a broad approach to forest ecosystem and landscape management that aims to maintain and restore key ecological processes and enhance human well‐being, while minimizing biodiversity loss. The forest transition model provides a useful framework for understanding the relative importance of forest conservation and restoration interventions in different regions. Harmonizing conservation and restoration presents serious challenges for forest policy in tropical countries, particularly regarding the use and management of secondary forests, fallow vegetation, and forests degraded by logging and fire. Research to implement restoration more effectively in tropical regions can be stimulated by transforming questions that initially focused on conservation issues. Examination of papers published in Biotropica from 2000–2018 shows that most studies relevant to tropical forest conservation do not address forest restoration issues. Forest restoration studies, on the other hand, show a consistent association with conservation issues. There is much scope for further integration of conservation and restoration in research, practice, and policy. Securing a sustainable future for tropical forests requires developing and applying integrated approaches to landscape management that effectively combine knowledge and tools from multiple disciplines with practical experience and engagement of local stakeholders. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

济南市森林生态系统服务功能的维持机制

森林作为陆地生态系统的重要组成部分,在维持生物多样性、固碳、水源涵养和木材供应等方面起着不可替代的作用。依据《森林生态系统服务功能评估规范》(LY/T1721—2008),以济南市12个林分类型为研究对象,对济南市森林生态系统服务功能维持机制进行研究,得出济南市年森林生态系统涵养水源、保育土壤、固碳释氧、林木积累营养物质、净化大气环境、生物多样性保护的价值为251.80亿元。其中,涵养水源、固碳释氧、生物多样性保护排在前3位;不同林分类型生态系统服务功能价值量中黑杨类和柏类占绝对优势,而泡桐、落叶松和竹林生态系统服务功能较弱;不同林龄生态系统服务功能价值量以中幼龄林为主;济南市森林生态系统服务功能的维持机制,受到森林资源面积、林龄结构、森林起源以及自然保护区建设等诸多因素的影响。     

Common Property and Conservation: The Potential for Effective Communal Forest Management Within a National Park in Mexico

Common property regimes may contribute to environmental conservationand offer a complementary institutional model to state-run protected areas. The potential conservation value of common property management is of particular significance in Mexico, where a large majority of forests are held communally. Systems of common property management often exist in a context of close institutional overlap with state institutions. This project assessed the function of a common property regime nested within Lagunas de Montebello National Park (PNLM) in Chiapas, Mexico. We documented forest status and analyzed common property forest management institutions following severe fires that threatened forest conservation. Forests managed by the common property regime are less intact than federal forests, yet still moderately conserved, and many attributes necessary for common property management are functional, despite the recent fire crisis. Yet external authorities contest common property management by local institutions, resulting in limited joint management by the national park and the community. Formalization and expansion of de facto cooperation between the federal and community institutions may enhance forest conservation within PNLM.     

Conservation of two threatened species: Picathartes

Thompson, H.S. & Fotso, R. 2000. Conservation of two threatened species: Picathartes. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 154–156.

In this paper, we describe the threats faced by Picathartes populations around two urban centres in Sierra Leone and Cameroon and outline some of the possible lines of conservation action. These populations are small and on the brink of local extinction unless immediate action is taken now. It is postulated that proper management of the unique situation of these “urban Picathartes populations” could contribute to local eco-tourism revenues, whilst ensuring the long-term survival of the birds. Some of our recent results on the breeding biology and ecology of the two species form the background against which conservation issues are discussed.     

陕西省退耕还林工程生态效益评估

基于截止2013年底陕西省退耕还林工程的资源数据,依据林业行业标准《森林生态系统服务功能评估规范》和《退耕还林工程生态效益监测评估技术标准与管理规范》,采用分布式测算方法从涵养水源、保育土壤、林木营养物质积累、固碳释氧、保护生物多样性、净化大气环境及森林防护等7个方面对陕西省退耕还林工程的生态效益进行评估,得出陕西省退耕还林工程生态效益价值量为973.47亿元/a,以涵养水源(274.06亿元/a)、净化大气环境(203.96亿元/a)和固碳释氧(173.95亿元/a)价值为主;3种植被恢复类型中以宜林荒山荒地造林模式的生态价值最高,封山育林模式的价值最低;在3个林种类型中,生态林的生态效益价值大于经济林和灌木林;在不同区域的生态效益价值评估中,以延安市的生态效益价值量为最高。     

The potential of paleoecology for functional forest restoration planning: lessons from Late Holocene Italian pollen records

We describe forest landscape transformations during the last two millennia in the Italian peninsula by analyzing local (Rieti basin – Lago Lungo) and regional (RF93-30 Adriatic Sea) sediment cores. We identify a dynamic forest ecosystem through paleoecologic reconstruction and consider potential interventions for effective restoration of the most ancient, least disturbed forest ecosystem. The most degraded ecosystems in consequence of human activities were hygrophilous (wet) and mesic forests. In the Rieti Basin, degraded forest ecosystems on mountain slopes are undergoing some degree of forest succession and have less need of restoration. However, management plans for biodiversity, ecosystem services and resources conservation are needed to achieve more sustainable development. In Rieti, the paleoecological investigation revealed a dramatic decrease of deciduous wet and mesic tree taxa through time due to human landscape transformation. The starting point for restoration of a Mediterranean forest ecosystem that preserves natural biodiversity and associated ecosystem services requires recreating some portion of the floodplain wetland ecological niche. Once floodplain forest ecological niche has been recreated, the original ecosystem composed of Alnus, Fraxinus excelsior, Tilia spp., Carpinus betulus and Acer spp., all species which today are rare, should be planted on the basis of microsite characteristics and tree autoecology.     

森林生态系统服务价值及其补偿校准——以马尾松林为例

森林补偿资金分配与生态系统服务脱钩,是长期以来制约森林生态保护制度发挥作用的关键因素。建立森林生态保护成效与资金分配挂钩的激励约束机制,对于完善生态补偿制度、保障国家生态安全具有重要意义。以马尾松林为例,运用野外调查、实验室实验等方法,精准计量评价马尾松林的固碳、水源涵养、固土保肥、生物多样性等4种主要生态系统服务;以皮尔(R.Pearl)生长曲线为基础构建生态补偿算法,测算基于生态系统服务价值的马尾松林补偿标准。第一,马尾松林生态系统服务价值为10335.86—16358.06元hm~(-2)a~(-1),固碳价值为165.93—521.03元hm~(-2)a~(-1),水源涵养价值为5024.47—11788.30元hm~(-2)a~(-1),固土保肥价值为3597.84—6405.04元hm~(-2)a~(-1),生物多样性价值为178.57—1346.15元hm~(-2)a~(-1)。第二,固碳价值、固土保肥价值在空间上呈现出随纬度增加而减小的格局,水源涵养价值、生物多样性价值与前两者分布格局相反。植被类型、经营方式影响马尾松林生态系统服务价值,混交林生态系统服务价值大于纯林,间伐补植的马尾松林生态系统服务价值高于皆伐后营造的林分。第三,马尾松林生态系统服务补偿标准为0.15×10~3—1.43×10~3元hm~(-2)a~(-1),大小主要受生态系统服务单价影响。本研究为森林生态系统服务精确计量评价、森林生态系统服务补偿标准的确定提供科学量化的依据。     

不同林分类型对昆虫群落多样性的影响

为研究近自然森林经营下的华北落叶松人工林不同林分类型对昆虫群落多样性的影响,以塞罕坝自然保护区内的华北落叶松纯林和混交林作为研究对象,对6种不同林分类型中的昆虫群落结构进行了研究。共获得昆虫标本9542头,隶属于7目,68科,187种,以双翅目、半翅目和鞘翅目为优势类群。研究结果表明:6种林分类型中的昆虫在物种和个体数上存在差异,相似性分析显示群落结构均不相似;群落多样性指数分析表明华北落叶松纯林和其它类型的混交林均具有较高的丰富度指数和多样性指数;主成分分析表明各林分类型中捕食性类群和寄生性类群是影响昆虫群落结构的主要因素,且捕食性类群和寄生性类群对植食性类群的控制作用较强;稳定性分析显示6种林分类型昆虫群落结构均具有较高的稳定性。     

Shadow conservation and the persistence of sacred church forests in northern Ethiopia

Land‐use change threatens biodiversity and ecosystem function worldwide. These changes have impacts on weather patterns, carbon storage, biodiversity, and other ecosystem services from regional to local scales. Only 8 percent of tropical forests are formally recognized as conservation areas, however globally, there is a network of sites that are protected because they are sacred and as a result act as ‘shadow’ conservation for biodiversity. Unlike other types of protected sites (e.g., national parks), these sites are seats of religious ritual that anchor a community's cultural identity, while also conserving biological diversity and other ecosystem services. We studied the extent and status of sacred forests in northern Ethiopia, which are threatened because of their small size (~5 ha) and isolation, increasing their exposure to edge effects and human pressures. Using historical and modern imagery, we found that over the last 50 yr, sacred forests have increased in area, but decreased in crown closure. We also found that forest ecological status, via ground‐level investigation, had high mean human disturbance (e.g., trails, plantations, exotic planting; 37%); and that forests close to markets (e.g., cities) increased in area due to planting of Eucalyptus (exotic), indicating a potential threat to their persistence and value as shelters of the church.     

Conservation value of timber quality versus associated non-timber quality stands for understory diversity in Nothofagus forests

Conservation strategies of forested landscapes must consider biodiversity of the included site types, i.e. timber-quality forests and associated non-timber-quality stands. The objectives were to characterize forest overstory structure in timber-quality versus associated non-timber-quality stands; and to compare their understory communities. Six forest types were sampled in Nothofagus forests of Tierra del Fuego (Argentina): two timber-quality N. pumilio forests, and four associated non-timber-quality stands (edge, N. antarctica, wetlands and streamside forests). Overstory structure and understory vegetation (species richness, frequencies, cover and biomass) were characterized during spring and summer seasons. Analysis of variance and multivariates were carried out. Overstory structure differed across the site types, with higher tree size, canopy closure and tree volume in timber-quality stands. Fifty-one understory plant species were observed, but understory variables varied with site types, especially wetlands (highest native and exotic richness, cover and biomass, and 25% of exclusive species). Site types were grouped in three: N. antarctica stands, streamside stands and the other N. pumilio forests according to multivariate analysis. Forty three percent of plants were distributed in all site types, and all timber-quality forest understory species were present in some associated non-timber-quality stands. Timber-quality N. pumilio forests have a marginal value for understory conservation compared to associated non-timber-quality stands, because these last include all the plants observed in timber-quality forests and also possess many exclusive species. Therefore, protection of associated non-timber-quality stands during forest management planning could increase understory conservation at landscape level, and these could be better reserves of understory diversity than retentions of timber-quality stands.     

Comparing Forests across Climates and Biomes: Qualitative Assessments,Reference Forests and Regional Intercomparisons

Communities, policy actors and conservationists benefit from understanding what institutions and land management regimes promote ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. However, the definition of success depends on local conditions. Forests'' potential carbon stock, biodiversity and rate of recovery following disturbance are known to vary with a broad suite of factors including temperature, precipitation, seasonality, species'' traits and land use history. Methods like tracking over-time changes within forests, or comparison with “pristine” reference forests have been proposed as means to compare the structure and biodiversity of forests in the face of underlying differences. However, data from previous visits or reference forests may be unavailable or costly to obtain. Here, we introduce a new metric of locally weighted forest intercomparison to mitigate the above shortcomings. This method is applied to an international database of nearly 300 community forests and compared with previously published techniques. It is particularly suited to large databases where forests may be compared among one another. Further, it avoids problematic comparisons with old-growth forests which may not resemble the goal of forest management. In most cases, the different methods produce broadly congruent results, suggesting that researchers have the flexibility to compare forest conditions using whatever type of data is available. Forest structure and biodiversity are shown to be independently measurable axes of forest condition, although users'' and foresters'' estimations of seemingly unrelated attributes are highly correlated, perhaps reflecting an underlying sentiment about forest condition. These findings contribute new tools for large-scale analysis of ecosystem condition and natural resource policy assessment. Although applied here to forestry, these techniques have broader applications to classification and evaluation problems using crowdsourced or repurposed data for which baselines or external validations are not available.     

Local people value environmental services provided by forested parks

Garnering support from local people is critical for maintaining ecologically viable and functional protected areas. However, empirical data illustrating local people’s awareness of the importance of nature’s services is limited; hence possibly impeding effective ecosystem (environmental)-services based conservation efforts. Using data from five protected forests in four developing Southeast Asian countries, we provide evidence that local people living near parks value a wide range of environmental services, including cultural, provisioning, and regulating services, provided by the forests. Local people with longer residency valued environmental services more. Educated as well as poor people valued forest ecosystem services more. Conservation education has some influence on people’s environmental awareness. For conservation endeavors to be successful, large-scale transmigration programs should be avoided and local people must be provided with alternative sustenance opportunities and basic education in addition to environmental outreach to reduce their reliance on protected forests and to enhance conservation support.     

Transitional forestry in New Zealand: re-evaluating the design and management of forest systems through the lens of forest purpose

Forestry management worldwide has become increasingly effective at obtaining high timber yields from productive forests. In New Zealand, a focus on improving an increasingly successful and largely Pinus radiata plantation forestry model over the last 150 years has resulted in some of the most productive timber forests in the temperate zone. In contrast to this success, the full range of forested landscapes across New Zealand, including native forests, are impacted by an array of pressures from introduced pests, diseases, and a changing climate, presenting a collective risk of losses in biological, social and economic value. As the national government policies incentivise reforestation and afforestation, the social acceptability of some forms of newly planted forests is also being challenged. Here, we review relevant literature in the area of integrated forest landscape management to optimise forests as nature-based solutions, presenting ‘transitional forestry’ as a model design and management paradigm appropriate to a range of forest types, where forest purpose is placed at the heart of decision making. We use New Zealand as a case study region, describing how this purpose-led transitional forestry model can benefit a cross section of forest types, from industrialised forest plantations to dedicated conservation forests and a range of multiple-purpose forests in between. Transitional forestry is an ongoing multi-decade process of change from current ‘business-as-usual’ forest management to future systems of forest management, embedded across a continuum of forest types. This holistic framework incorporates elements to enhance efficiencies of timber production, improve overall forest landscape resilience, and reduce some potential negative environmental impacts of commercial plantation forestry, while allowing the ecosystem functioning of commercial and non-commercial forests to be maximised, with increased public and biodiversity conservation value. Implementation of transitional forestry addresses tensions that arise between meeting climate mitigation targets and improving biodiversity criteria through afforestation, alongside increasing demand for forest biomass feedstocks to meet the demands of near-term bioenergy and bioeconomy goals. As ambitious government international targets are set for reforestation and afforestation using both native and exotic species, there is an increasing opportunity to make such transitions via integrated thinking that optimises forest values across a continuum of forest types, while embracing the diversity of ways in which such targets can be reached.     

Effects of forest management on epiphytic lichen diversity in Mediterranean forests

Question: What are the responses of epiphytic lichens to the intensity of management along a large environmental gradient in Mediterranean Quercus forests? Location: Central Spain. Methods: This study was carried out on 4590 trees located in 306 forest stands dominated by Quercus faginea or Quercus ilex ssp. ballota. The effect of forest management and other predictor variables on several species diversity indicators were studied. Variables modelled were total species richness, cyanolichen richness and community composition. A large number of predictor variables were included: forest fragmentation (patch size, stand variability), climate and topographic (altitude, slope, sun radiation, annual rainfall and mean annual temperature) and intensity of management. General linear models and constrained ordination techniques were used to model community traits and species composition, respectively. Results: Total richness and especially cyanolichens richness were significantly and negatively affected by the intensity of management. Lichen composition was influenced by management intensity, climatic and topographic variables and stand variability. Conclusions: In Mediterranean forests, human activities related to forestry, agricultural and livestock use cause impoverishment of lichen communities, including the local disappearance of the most demanding species. The conservation of unmanaged forests with a dense canopy is crucial for lichen diversity.     

辽西油松林水土保持效益评价

利用101块样地的调查资料,采用综合因子评价方法评价了辽西油松水土保持林的生态效益,把辽西油松水土保持林划分为低效、较低效、中效、较高效、高效五个等级：其中牛河梁地区的油松人工林大都为低效林,欺天林场的油松人工林大都为中效林,南刘杖子林场的天然次生林大都为高效林。这一研究结果将为辽西油松水土保持林生态系统管理提供重要的科学依据。     

林地资源变化对森林生态系统服务功能的影响——以南水北调核心水源地淅川县为例

森林生态系统是人类生存与发展的基础,其服务功能不可替代。以南水北调中线工程渠首所在地淅川县为研究区,使用2004年TM、2009年TM、2014年GF1号影像等数据,在PIC、Arcgis10.0等软件支持下,分析其2004—2014年的林地资源变化,并利用InVEST模型对森林生态系统服务功能(水源涵养、水质净化和土壤保持)进行定量评估。结果表明:(1)2004—2014年县域林地资源以有林地为主,面积增长迅速,灌木林地和苗圃地面积增长缓慢,疏林地和未成林造林地面积均呈现先增后减趋势;(2)伴随林地资源变化,森林生态系统服务功能产生相应显著变化,10年间县域水源涵养量功能减少19%,森林水质净化功能提高29%,土壤保持功能增加6%;(3)同一森林类型,其生态服务功能在不同年际之间的差异表现为平均水源涵养功能逐年下降,平均水质净化能力不断提升,平均土壤保持能力先增后减;(4)对比5种森林类型的生态服务功能,有林地的服务功能最强,其次为灌木林地和疏林地;(5)10年间县域森林生态系统的水源涵养、水质净化和土壤保持服务功能的高低与森林覆被的高低程度呈正相关,呈现出北高南低的空间分布格局;(6)科学管理森林生态系统服务的关键在于合理配置林地与其他用地的分布格局,提高林地与其它用地镶嵌构成的复合土地利用的可持续性。同时加强服务功能重要区域的保护,避免对对服务功能较差区域的破坏。此外,未来森林经营需要从单纯的森林面积扩张,转变为提高森林质量和生产力,从而加强森林生态系统对气候变化影响的适应能力。     

Diversity of wood-decaying fungi under different disturbance regimes—a case study from spruce mountain forests

Rapid destruction of forest habitats has led to the establishment of protected areas in formerly managed forests with the aim of restoring biodiversity. Conservation in spruce-dominated reserves is often contradicted by salvage logging after insect outbreaks. Here we study the community characteristics of wood decaying fungi in a high montane Norway Spruce forest with three different management types: (1) a formerly managed area disturbed by a large-scale bark beetle outbreak, (2) an area with continuous salvage logging, and (3) an old-growth forest. Bark beetle activity in the disturbed area resulted in downed wood amounts comparable to those of the old-growth forest. However, species accumulation curves for the disturbed forest were more similar to those of the logged forest than to those of the old-growth forest. This arose because of differences in the diversity of wood decay classes; wood decay in the disturbed forest was more homogeneous. Logs in the disturbed forest originated almost exclusively from bark-beetle-infested trees, but the causes of tree mortality in the old-growth forest were manifold. Although most red-listed species were clearly confined to old-growth forest, Antrodiella citrinella was most abundant in the disturbed forest. Our analysis furthermore showed that the between stand scale is the most effective unit for diversity wood-decaying fungi. We therefore suggest a conservation strategy for preserving old-growth forests and establishing protected forest stands to enhance structural heterogeneity in spruce-dominated forests. For this, a careful screening of protected areas throughout Europe is necessary to provide managers with guidelines for conservation.