RNA-directed DNA methylation has an important developmental function in Arabidopsis that is masked by the chromatin remodeler PICKLE

In Arabidopsis, RNA‐directed DNA methylation (RdDM) is required for the maintenance of CHH methylation, and for de novo methylation in all (CG, CHG, and CHH) contexts, but no obvious effect of RdDM deficiency on plant development has been found to date. We show that the combination of mutations in the chromatin remodeler PKL and RdDM components results in developmental alterations, which appear in a SUPPRESSOR OF DRM1 DRM2 CMT3 (SDC)‐dependent manner.     

Involvement of a Jumonji-C domain-containing histone demethylase in DRM2-mediated maintenance of DNA methylation

Histone demethylases-both lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) and Jumonji-C (JmjC) domain-containing proteins-are broadly implicated in the regulation of chromatin-dependent processes. In Arabidopsis thaliana, histone marks directly affect DNA methylation, and mutations in LSD1 homologues show reduced DNA methylation at some loci. We screened transfer DNA mutations in genes encoding JmjC domains for defects in DNA methylation. Mutations in jmj14 result in reduced DNA methylation in non-CG contexts at targets of DRM2 (domains rearranged methyltransferase 2)-mediated RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM), which is associated with an increase in H3K4m3. Unlike other components of RdDM, JMJ14 is not required for de novo methylation of a transgene, suggesting that JMJ14 is specifically involved in the maintenance phase of DRM2-mediated RdDM.     

RNA介导的植物DNA甲基化研究进展

RNA介导的DNA甲基化作用(RNA-directed DNA Methylation,RdDM)是首次在植物中发现的基因组表观修饰现象,RdDM通过RNA-DNA序列相互作用直接导致DNA甲基化。植物中的RdDM和siRNA介导的mRNA降解现象,都是通过RNA使序列特异性基因发生沉默,它们对于植物的染色体重排、抵御病毒感染、基因表达调控和发育的许多过程起到了非常重要的作用。在植物中有很多的文献报道RdDM现象,但是对于其具体调控机理还不是很清楚。这里对RNA介导的植物DNA甲基化的基本特征进行了简要概述,主要对RdDM机理的研究进展进行了综述,其中包括RdDM过程中的DNA甲基转移酶的种类及其作用机理,DNA甲基化与染色质修饰之间的关系,以及与RdDM相关的重要蛋白质的研究等。在植物中,转录和转录后水平都可能发生RdDM,诱发基因沉默,前者常涉及靶基因启动子的甲基化,后者则牵涉到编码区的甲基化。RdDM的发生依赖于RNAi途径中相似的siRNA和酶,如DCL3、RdR2、SDE4和AGO4。植物中至少含有三类DNA甲基转移酶DRM1/2、MET1和CMT3,其作用部位是与RNA同源的DNA区域中的所有胞嘧啶,而组蛋白H3第九位赖氨酸的甲基化影响着胞嘧啶的甲基化。     

Identification of genes required for de novo DNA methylation in Arabidopsis

De novo DNA methylation in Arabidopsis thaliana is catalyzed by the methyltransferase DRM2, a homolog of the mammalian de novo methyltransferase DNMT3. DRM2 is targeted to DNA by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in a process known as RNA-directed DNA Methylation (RdDM). While several components of the RdDM pathway are known, a functional understanding of the underlying mechanism is far from complete. We employed both forward and reverse genetic approaches to identify factors involved in de novo methylation. We utilized the FWA transgene, which is methylated and silenced when transformed into wild-type plants, but unmethylated and expressed when transformed into de novo methylation mutants. Expression of FWA is marked by a late-flowering phenotype, which is easily scored in mutant versus wild-type plants. By reverse genetics we discovered the requirement for known RdDM effectors AGO6 and NRPE5a for efficient de novo methylation. A forward genetic approach uncovered alleles of several components of the RdDM pathway, including alleles of clsy1, ktf1 and nrpd/e2, which have not been previously shown to be required for the initial establishment of DNA methylation. Mutations were mapped and genes cloned by both traditional and whole genome sequencing approaches. The methodologies and the mutant alleles discovered will be instrumental in further studies of de novo DNA methylation.Key words: DNA methylation, Arabidopsis, de novo, genetic screen, whole-genome sequencing     

Identification of genes required for de novo DNA methylation in Arabidopsis

De novo DNA methylation in Arabidopsis thaliana is catalyzed by the methyltransferase DRM2, a homolog of the mammalian de novo methyltransferase DNMT3. DRM2 is targeted to DNA by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in a process known as RNA-directed DNA Methylation (RdDM). While several components of the RdDM pathway are known, a functional understanding of the underlying mechanism is far from complete. We employed both forward and reverse genetic approaches to identify factors involved in de novo methylation. We utilized the FWA transgene, which is methylated and silenced when transformed into wild-type plants, but unmethylated and expressed when transformed into de novo methylation mutants. Expression of FWA is marked by a late flowering phenotype, which is easily scored in mutant versus wild-type plants. By reverse genetics we discovered the requirement for known RdDM effectors AGO6 and NRPE5a for efficient de novo methylation. A forward genetic approach uncovered alleles of several components of the RdDM pathway, including alleles of clsy1, ktf1, and nrpd/e2, which have not been previously shown to be required for the initial establishment of DNA methylation. Mutations were mapped and genes cloned by both traditional and whole genome sequencing approaches. The methodologies and the mutant alleles discovered will be instrumental in further studies of de novo DNA methylation.     

The splicing factor SR45 affects the RNA-directed DNA methylation pathway in Arabidopsis

Cytosine DNA methylation is an epigenetic mark frequently associated with silencing of genes and transposons. In Arabidopsis, the establishment of cytosine DNA methylation is performed by DOMAINS REARRANGED METHYLTRANSFERASE 2 (DRM2). DRM2 is guided to target sequences by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in a pathway termed RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM). We performed a screen for mutants that affect the establishment of DNA methylation by investigating genes that contain predicted RNA-interacting domains. After transforming FWA into 429 T-DNA insertion lines, we assayed for mutants that exhibited a late-flowering phenotype due to hypomethylated, thus ectopically expressed, copies of FWA. A T-DNA insertion line within the coding region of the spliceosome gene SR45 (sr45-1) flowered late after FWA transformation. Additionally, sr45-1 mutants display defects in the maintenance of DNA methylation. DNA methylation establishment and maintenance defects present in sr45-1 mutants are enhanced in dcl3-1 mutant background, suggesting a synergistic cooperation between SR45 and DICER-LIKE3 (DCL3) in the RdDM pathway.     

SHH1, a homeodomain protein required for DNA methylation, as well as RDR2, RDM4, and chromatin remodeling factors, associate with RNA polymerase IV

DNA methylation is an evolutionarily conserved epigenetic modification that is critical for gene silencing and the maintenance of genome integrity. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the de novo DNA methyltransferase, domains rearranged methyltransferase 2 (DRM2), is targeted to specific genomic loci by 24 nt small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) through a pathway termed RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM). Biogenesis of the targeting siRNAs is thought to be initiated by the activity of the plant-specific RNA polymerase IV (Pol-IV). However, the mechanism through which Pol-IV is targeted to specific genomic loci and whether factors other than the core Pol-IV machinery are required for Pol-IV activity remain unknown. Through the affinity purification of nuclear RNA polymerase D1 (NRPD1), the largest subunit of the Pol-IV polymerase, we found that several previously identified RdDM components co-purify with Pol-IV, namely RNA-dependent RNA polymerase 2 (RDR2), CLASSY1 (CLSY1), and RNA-directed DNA methylation 4 (RDM4), suggesting that the upstream siRNA generating portion of the RdDM pathway may be more physically coupled than previously envisioned. A homeodomain protein, SAWADEE homeodomain homolog 1 (SHH1), was also found to co-purify with NRPD1; and we demonstrate that SHH1 is required for de novo and maintenance DNA methylation, as well as for the accumulation of siRNAs at specific loci, confirming it is a bonafide component of the RdDM pathway.     

RNA polymerase V-dependent small RNAs in Arabidopsis originate from small,intergenic loci including most SINE repeats

In plants, heterochromatin is maintained by a small RNA-based gene silencing mechanism known as RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM). RdDM requires the non-redundant functions of two plant-specific DNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RNAP), RNAP IV and RNAP V. RNAP IV plays a major role in siRNA biogenesis, while RNAP V may recruit DNA methylation machinery to target endogenous loci for silencing. Although small RNA-generating regions that are dependent on both RNAP IV and RNAP V have been identified previously, the genomic loci targeted by RNAP V for siRNA accumulation and silencing have not been described extensively. To characterize the RNAP V-dependent, heterochromatic siRNA-generating regions in the Arabidopsis genome, we deeply sequenced the small RNA populations of wild-type and RNAP V null mutant (nrpe1) plants. Our results showed that RNAP V-dependent siRNA-generating loci are associated predominately with short repetitive sequences in intergenic regions. Suppression of small RNA production from short repetitive sequences was also prominent in RdDM mutants including dms4, drd1, dms3 and rdm1, reflecting the known association of these RdDM effectors with RNAP V. The genomic regions targeted by RNAP V were small, with an estimated average length of 238 bp. Our results suggest that RNAP V affects siRNA production from genomic loci with features dissimilar to known RNAP IV-dependent loci. RNAP V, along with RNAP IV and DRM1/2, may target and silence a set of small, intergenic transposable elements located in dispersed genomic regions for silencing. Silencing at these loci may be actively reinforced by RdDM.     

RNA polymerase V-dependent small RNAs in Arabidopsis originate from small,intergenic loci including most SINE repeats

In plants, heterochromatin is maintained by a small RNA-based gene silencing mechanism known as RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM). RdDM requires the non-redundant functions of two plant-specific DNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RNAP), RNAP IV and RNAP V. RNAP IV plays a major role in siRNA biogenesis, while RNAP V may recruit DNA methylation machinery to target endogenous loci for silencing. Although small RNA-generating regions that are dependent on both RNAP IV and RNAP V have been identified previously, the genomic loci targeted by RNAP V for siRNA accumulation and silencing have not been described extensively. To characterize the RNAP V-dependent, heterochromatic siRNA-generating regions in the Arabidopsis genome, we deeply sequenced the small RNA populations of wild-type and RNAP V null mutant (nrpe1) plants. Our results showed that RNAP V-dependent siRNA-generating loci are associated predominately with short repetitive sequences in intergenic regions. Suppression of small RNA production from short repetitive sequences was also prominent in RdDM mutants including dms4, drd1, dms3 and rdm1, reflecting the known association of these RdDM effectors with RNAP V. The genomic regions targeted by RNAP V were small, with an estimated average length of 238 bp. Our results suggest that RNAP V affects siRNA production from genomic loci with features dissimilar to known RNAP IV-dependent loci. RNAP V, along with RNAP IV and DRM1/2, may target and silence a set of small, intergenic transposable elements located in dispersed genomic regions for silencing. Silencing at these loci may be actively reinforced by RdDM.