PCL-Based Composite Scaffold Matrices for Tissue Engineering Applications

Biomaterial-based scaffolds are important cues in tissue engineering (TE) applications. Recent advances in TE have led to the development of suitable scaffold architecture for various tissue defects. In this narrative review on polycaprolactone (PCL), we have discussed in detail about the synthesis of PCL, various properties and most recent advances of using PCL and PCL blended with either natural or synthetic polymers and ceramic materials for TE applications. Further, various forms of PCL scaffolds such as porous, films and fibrous have been discussed along with the stem cells and their sources employed in various tissue repair strategies. Overall, the present review affords an insight into the properties and applications of PCL in various tissue engineering applications.     

Biomimetic Synthesis of Collagen/Nano-Hydroxyapitate Scaffold for Tissue Engineering

This paper reports a precipitation method for the fabrication of compositionally graded biomimetic collagen/nano-hydroxyapatite (HA) composite scaffold. The method is centrifugation based and produce the precipitation of nano-HA crystallites in situ (calcium ions (Ca²⁺) react phosphate ions (PO₄³⁻) and precipitate a non-stoichiometric hydroxyapatite). It was observed that prism needle-like nano-HA crystallites (about 2.5 nm × 3 nm× 25 nm) precipitated on collagen fibrils in the interior of collagen matrix. Chemical and microstructure analysis revealed a gradient of the Ca to P ratio across the width of the scaffold, lead to the formation of a HA-rich side and a HA-deplete side of scaffold. The HA-rich side featured low porosity and agglomerates of the nano-HA crystallites; while HA-depleted side featured higher porosity and nano-HA crystallites integrated with collagen fibrils to form a porous network structure.     

Engineering 3D Cellularized Collagen Gels for Vascular Tissue Regeneration

Synthetic materials are known to initiate clinical complications such as inflammation, stenosis, and infections when implanted as vascular substitutes. Collagen has been extensively used for a wide range of biomedical applications and is considered a valid alternative to synthetic materials due to its inherent biocompatibility (i.e., low antigenicity, inflammation, and cytotoxic responses). However, the limited mechanical properties and the related low hand-ability of collagen gels have hampered their use as scaffold materials for vascular tissue engineering. Therefore, the rationale behind this work was first to engineer cellularized collagen gels into a tubular-shaped geometry and second to enhance smooth muscle cells driven reorganization of collagen matrix to obtain tissues stiff enough to be handled.The strategy described here is based on the direct assembling of collagen and smooth muscle cells (construct) in a 3D cylindrical geometry with the use of a molding technique. This process requires a maturation period, during which the constructs are cultured in a bioreactor under static conditions (without applied external dynamic mechanical constraints) for 1 or 2 weeks. The “static bioreactor” provides a monitored and controlled sterile environment (pH, temperature, gas exchange, nutrient supply and waste removal) to the constructs. During culture period, thickness measurements were performed to evaluate the cells-driven remodeling of the collagen matrix, and glucose consumption and lactate production rates were measured to monitor the cells metabolic activity. Finally, mechanical and viscoelastic properties were assessed for the resulting tubular constructs. To this end, specific protocols and a focused know-how (manipulation, gripping, working in hydrated environment, and so on) were developed to characterize the engineered tissues.     

A Structurally and Functionally Biomimetic Biphasic Scaffold for Intervertebral Disc Tissue Engineering

Tissue engineering offers high hopes for the treatment of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration. Whereas scaffolds of the disc nucleus and annulus have been extensively studied, a truly biomimetic and mechanically functional biphasic scaffold using naturally occurring extracellular matrix is yet to be developed. Here, a biphasic scaffold was fabricated with collagen and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), two of the most abundant extracellular matrix components in the IVD. Following fabrication, the scaffold was characterized and benchmarked against native disc. The biphasic scaffold was composed of a collagen-GAG co-precipitate making up the nucleus pulposus-like core, and this was encapsulated in multiple lamellae of photochemically crosslinked collagen membranes comprising the annulus fibrosus-like lamellae. On mechanical testing, the height of our engineered disc recovered by ~82-89% in an annulus-independent manner, when compared with the 99% recovery exhibited by native disc. The annulus-independent nature of disc height recovery suggests that the fluid replacement function of the engineered nucleus pulposus core might mimic this hitherto unique feature of native disc. Biphasic scaffolds comprised of 10 annulus fibrosus-like lamellae had the best overall mechanical performance among the various designs owing to their similarity to native disc in most aspects, including elastic compliance during creep and recovery, and viscous compliance during recovery. However, the dynamic mechanical performance (including dynamic stiffness and damping factor) of all the biphasic scaffolds was similar to that of the native discs. This study contributes to the rationalized design and development of a biomimetic and mechanically viable biphasic scaffold for IVD tissue engineering.     

高仿真组织工程神经支架制备工艺的参数优化

目的：对直接影响神经支架微观结构的关键因素进行分析,以确定制备不同孔径仿真支架的制备工艺。方法：用前期开发的神经支架制备工艺,应用不同浓度的醋酸浓度和冷淋速度制备仿真神经支架,以扫描电镜观察神经支架结构特征,以确定醋酸浓度和冷淋速度对神经支架内部结构的影响。结果：醋酸浓度和冷淋速度对神经支架内部结构具有重要影响。醋酸浓度为0mg/ml时,无法制备定向结构的神经支架,当醋酸浓度为1mg/ml、2mg/ml、3mg/ml和4mg/ml时,可制备轴定向仿真支架,并且神经支架的孔径随醋酸浓度增大而增大;当冷淋速度为1×10-5m/s、2×10-5m/s和5×10-5m/s时,所制备的仿真支架内部均呈明显的轴向微管结构,其中冷淋速度为2×10-5m/s时,其轴向微管结构排列最为有序、规律。当速度为1×10-6m/s,2×10-6m/s,5×10-6m/s以及1×10-4m/s时,所制备的材料内部微管结构走向无明显规律。结论：醋酸浓度和冷淋速度是影响神经支架内部结构的两个关键因素,通过改变醋酸浓度和冷淋速度可制备不同孔径的仿真神经支架。     

A Tissue-Specific Scaffold for Tissue Engineering-Based Ureteral Reconstruction

Terminally differentiated somatic cells can rapidly change phenotypes when they are isolated from their native tissue and cultured in vitro. This problem may become a barrier to tissue engineering-based organ reconstruction, which utilizes somatic cells. The present study was designed to validate the feasibility of maintaining the urothelial cell phenotype in a tissue-specific ureteral scaffold. The tissue-specific scaffold was fabricated by blending poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) and ureteral extracellular matrix (UECM) using electrostatic spinning technology. PLLA was used to enhance the mechanical properties, and UECM was used to mimic the natural components of the ureter. Primary urothelial cells (UCs), derived from ureteral mucosa, were seeded onto the tissue-specific scaffold to assess cell adhesion, proliferation and phenotypes at designated time points. The results showed that UCs in the tissue-specific scaffold exhibited better proliferation compared to cells in pure PLLA or a PLLA-small intestinal submucosa (PLLA-SIS) scaffold (p<0.05). At different time points, the expression of a UC-specific marker (UroplakinⅢ) in the tissue-specific scaffold was significantly higher than its expression in pure PLLA or a PLLA-SIS scaffold (p<0.05). Therefore, the tissue-specific scaffold appears to be an ideal substrate for promoting UC survival and phenotype maintenance.     

软骨基质来源定向结构支架复合软骨细胞体外构建组织工程软骨的研究

目的：探讨采用软骨细胞外基质材料制备的定向结构软骨支架复合软骨细胞,在体外静态培养条件下生成组织工程软骨的可能性。方法：制备牛关节软骨细胞外基质材料,利用温度梯度热诱导相分离技术构建具备垂直定向孔道结构的软骨支架,同时采用传统冷冻干燥方法制备非定向支架,检测两组支架的力学性能;提取兔关节软骨细胞,分别接种两组支架,体外静态培养2周及4周后取材,对构建的组织工程软骨进行组织切片染色、生物化学分析及生物力学检测。结果：定向软骨支架的压缩弹性模量数值明显高于非定向软骨支架,体外培养时定向支架上种子细胞在3-9d内增殖高于非定向支架,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）;体外静态培养4周后形成的两组新生组织工程软骨进行软骨特异性染色均呈阳性,在定向组新生软骨切片中在垂直方向上可见大量呈规则平行排列的粗大胶原纤维,两组新生软骨的生物化学检测包括总DNA、总GAG及总胶原含量差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。定向组织工程软骨压缩弹性模量在2周及4周时均高于非定向组织工程软骨,差异有统计学意义（P〈0．05）。但两组组织工程软骨上述指标均显著低于正常关节软骨（P〈0．05）。结论：软骨细胞外基质材料制备的定向结构软骨支架复合软骨细胞,在体外静态培养条件下能够成功生成具有定向纤维结构的组织工程软骨,并可以有效促进新生软骨组织力学性能的提升,在软骨组织工程中具有良好的应用前景。     

Mathematical Model of Growth Factor Driven Haptotaxis and Proliferation in a Tissue Engineering Scaffold

Motivated by experimental work (Miller et al. in Biomaterials 27(10):2213–2221, 2006, 32(11):2775–2785, 2011) we investigate the effect of growth factor driven haptotaxis and proliferation in a perfusion tissue engineering bioreactor, in which nutrient-rich culture medium is perfused through a 2D porous scaffold impregnated with growth factor and seeded with cells. We model these processes on the timescale of cell proliferation, which typically is of the order of days. While a quantitative representation of these phenomena requires more experimental data than is yet available, qualitative agreement with preliminary experimental studies (Miller et al. in Biomaterials 27(10):2213–2221, 2006) is obtained, and appears promising. The ultimate goal of such modeling is to ascertain initial conditions (growth factor distribution, initial cell seeding, etc.) that will lead to a final desired outcome.     

Tissue Engineering: Construction of a Multicellular 3D Scaffold for the Delivery of Layered Cell Sheets

Many tissues, such as the adult human hearts, are unable to adequately regenerate after damage.^2,3 Strategies in tissue engineering propose innovations to assist the body in recovery and repair. For example, TE approaches may be able to attenuate heart remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI) and possibly increase total heart function to a near normal pre-MI level.⁴ As with any functional tissue, successful regeneration of cardiac tissue involves the proper delivery of multiple cell types with environmental cues favoring integration and survival of the implanted cell/tissue graft. Engineered tissues should address multiple parameters including: soluble signals, cell-to-cell interactions, and matrix materials evaluated as delivery vehicles, their effects on cell survival, material strength, and facilitation of cell-to-tissue organization. Studies employing the direct injection of graft cells only ignore these essential elements.^2,5,6 A tissue design combining these ingredients has yet to be developed. Here, we present an example of integrated designs using layering of patterned cell sheets with two distinct types of biological-derived materials containing the target organ cell type and endothelial cells for enhancing new vessels formation in the “tissue”. Although these studies focus on the generation of heart-like tissue, this tissue design can be applied to many organs other than heart with minimal design and material changes, and is meant to be an off-the-shelf product for regenerative therapies. The protocol contains five detailed steps. A temperature sensitive Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAAM) is used to coat tissue culture dishes. Then, tissue specific cells are cultured on the surface of the coated plates/micropattern surfaces to form cell sheets with strong lateral adhesions. Thirdly, a base matrix is created for the tissue by combining porous matrix with neovascular permissive hydrogels and endothelial cells. Finally, the cell sheets are lifted from the pNIPAAM coated dishes and transferred to the base element, making the complete construct.     

组织工程在食管修复重建外科中的应用

食管替代术是很多食管疾病的常用治疗手段.采用自身组织进行食管替代创伤大,术后并发症多,而现有的人工食管很难满足食管替代的要求.利用组织工程技术进行食管的替代研究,为解决这些问题带来了希望.本文就组织工程在食管修复重建外科中的应用及前景进行综述.     

Transglutaminase Reactivity with Gelatine: Perspective Applications in Tissue Engineering

Gelatine was crosslinked by means of an enzymatic treatment using tissue transglutaminase (tTGase) (Sigma) and microbial transglutaminase (mTGase) (Ajinomoto) which catalyses the formation of isopeptide bonds between the γ-carbonyl group of a glutamine residue and the ε-amino group of a lysine residue. The reaction is an interesting alternative to the traditional glutaraldehyde crosslinking, which has several drawbacks (e.g., in medical application) due to the toxicity of the chemical reagent. To further investigate the possibility to utilize the modified protein for tissue engineering application, TGase crosslinked gelatine was incorporated in a gellan matrix, a polysaccharide, to enhance the stability in aqueous media. Films obtained by casting were characterized by thermal analysis, chemical imaging, swelling behaviour and cell adhesion.     

Development of Tunable Silk Fibroin/Xanthan Biopolymeric Scaffold for Skin Tissue Engineering Using L929 Fibroblast Cells

Skin acts as protective barrier against a number of factors such as dust,opportunistic microbial and viral infections,regulates body temperature and waste discharge.Fibroblast cell population plays an important role in devclopment of skin architecturc.A scaffold having capability to support and enhance fibroblast growth is a viable option for wound dressing material which can shorten the time for wound to heal.In this work,Silk Fibroin(SF)and Xanthan(Xa)were blended in three ratios 80 SF:20 Xa(SFX82),60 SF:40 Xa(SFX64),and 50SF:50 Xa(SFX55)to create SF/Xa scaffold.Miscibility and other physicochemical properties of SF/Xa scaffold are functions of blending ratios and blend with the ratio 80 SF:20 Xa has the highest miscibility.Thermal properties of SF/Xa blends are a function of miscibility with SFX82 having superior thermal propertis of all fabricated scaffolds.The porosity of SF/Xa scaffolds is in the range of 67%to 50%,with pore size of 58.1 um-45.5 um,water uptake capacity of 92%-86%,and surface roughness of 49.95 nm-385 nm.SFX82 shows highest growth rate of L929 fibroblast cells indicating its superiority over other scaffolds for providing biological cues for the growth and proliferation of fibroblastic cells in natural environment.SFX82 scaffold is found to be most suitable for fibroblastic cells thereby enhancing the tissue regeneration at wound site.     

Three Dimensional Imaging of Paraffin Embedded Human Lung Tissue Samples by Micro-Computed Tomography

Background

Understanding the three-dimensional (3-D) micro-architecture of lung tissue can provide insights into the pathology of lung disease. Micro computed tomography (µCT) has previously been used to elucidate lung 3D histology and morphometry in fixed samples that have been stained with contrast agents or air inflated and dried. However, non-destructive microstructural 3D imaging of formalin-fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) tissues would facilitate retrospective analysis of extensive tissue archives of lung FFPE lung samples with linked clinical data.

Methods

FFPE human lung tissue samples (n = 4) were scanned using a Nikon metrology µCT scanner. Semi-automatic techniques were used to segment the 3D structure of airways and blood vessels. Airspace size (mean linear intercept, Lm) was measured on µCT images and on matched histological sections from the same FFPE samples imaged by light microscopy to validate µCT imaging.

Results

The µCT imaging protocol provided contrast between tissue and paraffin in FFPE samples (15mm x 7mm). Resolution (voxel size 6.7 µm) in the reconstructed images was sufficient for semi-automatic image segmentation of airways and blood vessels as well as quantitative airspace analysis. The scans were also used to scout for regions of interest, enabling time-efficient preparation of conventional histological sections. The Lm measurements from µCT images were not significantly different to those from matched histological sections.

Conclusion

We demonstrated how non-destructive imaging of routinely prepared FFPE samples by laboratory µCT can be used to visualize and assess the 3D morphology of the lung including by morphometric analysis.     

Tunable Collagen I Hydrogels for Engineered Physiological Tissue Micro-Environments

Collagen I hydrogels are commonly used to mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) for tissue engineering applications. However, the ability to design collagen I hydrogels similar to the properties of physiological tissues has been elusive. This is primarily due to the lack of quantitative correlations between multiple fabrication parameters and resulting material properties. This study aims to enable informed design and fabrication of collagen hydrogels in order to reliably and reproducibly mimic a variety of soft tissues. We developed empirical predictive models relating fabrication parameters with material and transport properties. These models were obtained through extensive experimental characterization of these properties, which include compression modulus, pore and fiber diameter, and diffusivity. Fabrication parameters were varied within biologically relevant ranges and included collagen concentration, polymerization pH, and polymerization temperature. The data obtained from this study elucidates previously unknown fabrication-property relationships, while the resulting equations facilitate informed a priori design of collagen hydrogels with prescribed properties. By enabling hydrogel fabrication by design, this study has the potential to greatly enhance the utility and relevance of collagen hydrogels in order to develop physiological tissue microenvironments for a wide range of tissue engineering applications.     

Electrospun Scaffold of Collagen and Polycaprolactone Containing ZnO Quantum Dots for Skin Wound Regeneration

Nanofibers(NFs)have been widely used in tissue engineering such as wound healing.In this work,the antibacterial ZnO quantum dots(ZnO QDs)have been incorporated into the biocompatible poly(ε-caprolactone)/collagen(PCL/Col)fibrous scaffolds for wound healing.The as-fabricated PCL-Col/ZnO fibrous scaffolds exhibited good swelling,antibacterial activity,and biodegradation behaviors,which were beneficial for the applications as a wound dressing.Moreover,the PCL-Col/ZnO fibrous scaffolds showed excellent cytocompatibility for promoting cell proliferation.The resultant PCL-Col/ZnO fibrous scaffolds containing vascular endothelial growth factor(VEGF)also exhibited promoted wound-healing effect through promoting expression of transforming growth factor-β(TGF-β)and the vascular factor(CD31)in tissues in the early stages of wound healing.This new electrospun fibrous scaffolds with wound-healing promotion and antibacterial property should be convenient for treating wound healing.     

Dermatology: Current Concerns With Collagen for Soft Tissue Augmentation

The Scientific Board of the California Medical Association presents the following inventory of items of progress in dermatology. Each item, in the judgment of a panel of knowledgeable physicians, has recently become reasonably firmly established, both as to scientific fact and important clinical significance. The items are presented in simple epitome, and an authoritative reference, both to the item itself and to the subject as a whole, is generally given for those who may be unfamiliar with a particular item. The purpose is to assist busy practitioners, students, researchers, or scholars to stay abreast of these items of progress in dermatology that have recently achieved a substantial degree of authoritative acceptance, whether in their own field of special interest or another.The items of progress listed below were selected by the Advisory Panel to the Section on Dermatology of the California Medical Association, and the summaries were prepared under its direction.     

A Combined Connective Tissue Stain for Elastin, Reticulin and Collagen

A staining technique for demonstrating reticulin, elastin and collagen in the same tissue sections is based upon the use of a silver stain for reticulin, orcein for elastin and picro-anilin blue or fast green for collagen and other tissue structures.     

Smooth Muscle Strips for Intestinal Tissue Engineering

Functionally contracting smooth muscle is an essential part of the engineered intestine that has not been replicated in vitro. The purpose of this study is to produce contracting smooth muscle in culture by maintaining the native smooth muscle organization. We employed intact smooth muscle strips and compared them to dissociated smooth muscle cells in culture for 14 days. Cells isolated by enzymatic digestion quickly lost maturity markers for smooth muscle cells and contained few enteric neural and glial cells. Cultured smooth muscle strips exhibited periodic contraction and maintained neural and glial markers. Smooth muscle strips cultured for 14 days also exhibited regular fluctuation of intracellular calcium, whereas cultured smooth muscle cells did not. After implantation in omentum for 14 days on polycaprolactone scaffolds, smooth muscle strip constructs expressed high levels of smooth muscle maturity markers as well as enteric neural and glial cells. Intact smooth muscle strips may be a useful component for engineered intestinal smooth muscle.