Parasites of marine sticklebacks

A total of three specimens of Spinachia spinachia and 11 Gasterosteus aculeatus were caught in Loch Etive, Scotland. The salinity of the water at the capture site was 23%. Nine species of parasites were collected from individuals of the mixed population of sticklebacks, which included seven new parasite records for the British Isles.     

Discontinuous distributions of the fish acanthocephalans Pomphorhynchm laevis and Acanthocephalus anguillae in Britain and Ireland: an hypothesis

The current distributions of the freshwater fish acanthocephalans Pomphorhynchus laevis and Acanthocephalus anguillae are described and shown to be discontinuous and mutually exclusive, both regionally and locally, in the British Isles. An hypothesis is erected to account for this pattern. It is suggested that as the continental freshwater cyprinids colonized post-glacial mainland Britain via the eastward-flowing rivers and the Thames-Rhine link, they brought with them both species of acanthocephalan. The present, more extensive distribution of P. laevis in the British Isles and Ireland is explained by (1) early formation of a marine strain that colonized the Baltic and North Sea and estuaries of North Sea rivers, (2) later transfers of infected barbel to other English rivers from the R. Thames by man, and (3) transfers to Ireland of infected cyprinids from England by man. Different and restricted availability of preferred definitive and intermediate hosts subsequently resulted in the formation of distinct strains in England and Ireland. The distribution of A. anguillae can be explained by similar anthropogenic influences, but since its definitive and intermediate hosts are more widely available, strain formation has not yet been detected. Competitive interactions between the two parasites in the intestine of the definitive hosts are thought to be responsible for their mutual exclusiveness.     

The parasite fauna of the fish of the Shropshire Union Canal, Cheshire

A survey was made of the parasites of 603 roach Rutilus rutilus (L.), 15 bream Abramis brama (L.), 201 perch Perca fluviatilis L., 30 pike Esox lucius L. and four eels Anguilla anguilla (L.) caught in the Shropshire Union Canal at Backford, Cheshire from December 1964 to August 1966. Twenty-seven species of parasites were found, 17 in roach, seven in bream, ten in perch, ten in pike and two in the eel. Two species of Protozoa, seven species of Monogenea, five species of Digenea, six species of Cestoda, two species of Nematoda, one species of Acanthocephala, two species of Hirudinea, one species of Crustacea and mollusc glochidia were recorded. The following parasites are believed to be new records for the British Isles: Henneguya oviperda (Cohn, 1895), Dactylogyrus suecicus Nybelin, 1936, D. wunderi Bykhovskii, 1931, Asymphylodora kubanicum (Isaichikov, 1923), and Philometra rischta Skryabin, 1917.
One table shows the species of parasites found, together with data on the site of occurrence in the host, and the percentage and intensity of infection of the fish. A second table compares the occurrence of the parasites in four other localities in the British Isles, Loch Lomond Scotland, Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake), Merionethshire, Rostherne Mere, Cheshire and the River Lugg, Herefordshire. A further column gives the normal hosts in the U.S.S.R.
A limited comparison is made of the numerical occurrence of six species of parasites in the canal, Llyn Tegid and Druzno Lake, Poland. It is concluded that unless relatively large samples of fish of all length groups are collected on a regular basis throughout the year such comparisons will have little meaning.
The concept of the characterization of parasite faunas is briefly noted. It is suggested that the high degree of host specificity shown by many of the species of parasites is evidence in support of the concept.     

The taxonomy, morphology and distribution of species of Scinaia Biv.–Bern. (Nemaliales, Rhodophyta) in north–western Europe

Re–examination of herbarium material and new collections of species of Scinaia in north–western Europe shows that the distributions of Scinaia forcellata Biv.–Bern. and S. turgida Chemin have been wrongly assessed in recent literature. S. forcellata ssp. forcellata is found on southern and western coasts of the British Isles north to Co. Clare, Ireland and on Channel coasts east to Boulogne. S. turgida , on the other hand, is found on southern and western coasts of the British Isles north to Shetland and on Channel coasts east to Roscoff. A new subspecies, S. forcellata ssp. scandinavica ssp. nov., is proposed for material previously referred to S. forcellata ssp. forcellata from Denmark, Helgoland, Sweden and possibly Norway. Specimens of a small Scinaia species collected off the Aran Islands, western Ireland are provisionally referred to S. complanata (F. S. Collins) Cotton pending the collection of further material.     

A key to the larvae of Sialidae (Insecta: Megaloptera) occurring in the British Isles

SUMMARY. The discovery of a third species of alderfly ( Sialis nigripes ) in Britain and Ireland necessitates a new larval key for the group in these islands. Characters are now provided to distinguish the larvae of the three species, and their habitat and distribution in the British Isles are outlined.     

Mapping of earthworm distribution for the British Isles and Eire highlights the under-recording of an ecologically important group

Earthworms are important soil organisms yet we have limited knowledge on the geographical distribution of species. Using data from a variety of sources representing a total of 3,941 locality records we have produced the first distribution maps of earthworm species in the British Isles The maps highlight the paucity of knowledge on this ecologically important group. A systematic approach needs to be taken to bring earthworm species data to a level comparable with other important invertebrate groups such as nematodes and isopods. Through the recent establishment of an earthworm recording scheme, the Earthworm Society of Britain, working with the Biological Records Centre and earthworm researchers across the British Isles, aim to build comprehensive distribution information for future monitoring and research purposes.     

The sciarid fauna of the British Isles (Diptera: Sciaridae), including descriptions of six new species

The results of a revision of the Sciaridae (Diptera: Nematocera) from the British Isles are presented, carried out as a preliminary to the preparation of a new Handbook for the identification of the British and Irish fauna of this family. A total fauna of 263 species is confirmed, including many species new to the British Isles: 111 new to Great Britain and 32 new to Ireland. Epidapus ( Pseudoaptanogyna ) echinatum Mohrig & Kozánek, 1992 , hitherto known only from North Korea, is newly recorded from Europe. Six species are described as new to science: Bradysia austera Menzel & Heller sp. nov. , Bradysia ismayi Menzel sp. nov. , Bradysia nigrispina Menzel sp. nov. , Corynoptera flavosignata Menzel & Heller sp. nov. , Corynoptera uncata Menzel & Smith sp. nov. and Epidapus subgracilis Menzel & Mohrig sp. nov . The following new synonymies are proposed: Leptosciarella nigrosetosa (Freeman, 1990) =  Leptosciarella truncatula Mohrig & Menzel, 1997 ; Sciara nursei Freeman, 1983 =  Sciara ulrichi Menzel & Mohrig, 1998. Many misidentifications in the previous literature are corrected. Details of the collection data and location of specimens examined are provided under each species. The localities from which Sciaridae were collected in the British Isles are documented by modern county and grid references and the habitat indicated where known, to assist in assessing the ecological requirements of each species.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 146 , 1–147.     

Genetic signatures of population change in the British golden eagle (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aquila chrysaetos</Emphasis>)

The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) was once widely distributed in the uplands of the British Isles, but is now extinct in Ireland, and largely confined to the highlands and islands of Scotland. As the precise extent and severity of the reduction in population size are unclear, it is important to understand how the population was affected by the decline. We therefore genotyped 13 polymorphic microsatellite loci in 172 individuals from the contemporary British population and compared their genetic diversity to 70 British and 9 Irish museum specimens. Despite the recent population decline, there is only slight evidence for a concomitant loss of genetic variation. Instead, two likelihood-based Bayesian methods provided evidence for a severe ancient genetic bottleneck, possibly caused by the fragmentation of a large mainland European population and/or the founding effects of colonising the British Isles. As the population persisted despite this ancient bottleneck, our conclusion is that there is limited need for intervention to augment the present-day genetic diversity. The main short-term objective of conservation measures should be to increase population sizes by continuous safeguarding of individuals and habitat management. Finally, we also confirmed that, for management purposes, the species should be considered a single population unit and that the extinct Irish population was not differentiated from the British one.     

The distribution and reproduction of Pterosiphonia complanata

The geographical distribution of the red alga Pterosiphonia complanata (Clem.) Falkenb. is described. New records confirm that it is restricted to the warmer waters of the North Atlantic and extend its known distribution in the British Isles where it is at the northern limits of its range. The apparent scarcity and restricted distribution of the species in the British Isles and the absence of sexual plants throughout its range are discussed in relation to the habitat and possible life history of the species.     

Craniometric variation in the Eurasian badger, Meles meles

A multivariate examination of cranial variation within and between European populations of Meles meles (L.) revealed that populations from Ireland, Great Britain, Norway, and the Slovak Republic could be differentiated both by cranial form and by the degree of sexual dimorphism exhibited. Irish material was characterized by low sexual dimorphism, particularly when compared to Slovak specimens. Badgers from the British Isles had larger skulls than other samples and were more similar to each other than they were to badgers from mainland Europe. Size played a greater role in differentiating samples of female badgers than it did in males. Significant variation occurred within the British Isles, with individual samples being highly differentiable. There was, however, little relationship between morphological similarity and geographic proximity. We contend that macrogeographical (between-country) variation in the species is primarily determined by historical factors and adaptation to current conditions, while microgeographic (within-country) variation is a result of selectively neutral processes.     

Red and sika deer in the British Isles,current management issues and management policy

The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the most widely distributed species of deer in Europe. Due to its economic value as game species or its negative impacts on forestry, agriculture and conservation areas, most populations are currently managed, with strategies and intensity of the management varying between countries. In Britain, and less certainly in Ireland, red deer have been continuously present since the end of the last glaciation and constitute the largest population of red deer in Europe. Although they thrived in the past when forests were abundant, the current distribution of red deer in the British Isles is uneven, with the largest numbers being found in Scotland and few and more localised populations in England, Wales and the Republic of Ireland. In the British Isles, as in many other parts of Europe, there is a long history of man interacting with deer populations including local extinctions, multiple translocations and introductions of exotic species of deer. Among introduced exotic species of deer, the Japanese sika (Cervus nippon) is the one of most concern. After introduction of small numbers at multiple locations in Britain and Ireland from 1860 onwards, sika have increased in population number and range in areas with good forest cover, and where they overlap with red deer there is a risk of hybridisation. Due to recent increases in numbers and range of red and sika deer, both species pose a range of management challenges which are not easy to solve. In this review we summarise the history and status of these two species in Great Britain and Ireland, describe current management and discuss management options for the future.     

OBSERVATIONS ON THE GENUS PSAMMINA,INCLUDING THE DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW ALGICOLOUS AND LICHENICOLOUS SPECIES

Psammina inflata Earland-Bennett & D. Hawksw. and P. simplex Earland-Bennett & D. Hawksw. are described as new species from coccoid green algae and crustose or leprose lichens in lowland Britain. Additional records and hosts for P. stipitata are reported, and a key to the four species now known in the British Isles is presented. Psammina simplex is the more strongly pathogenic of the species, eventually destroying its hosts. The discovery of these new species adds weight to the view that the genus is more appropriately regarded as a hyphomycete rather than an acervular coelomycete. The size, shape and septation dimensions of the conidial arms were found to be the most reliable characters for species separations in the genus. Pycnopsammina lobariae Diederich & Etayo is also cited from the British Isles for the first time.     

DERMATOCARPON LEPTOPHYLLODESAND RELATED SPECIES IN THE BRITISH ISLES

The species ofDermatocarponoccurring in the British Isles are reviewed, with special reference to the hydrophilous species; a number of related species not yet recorded for the British Isles are also briefly treated.Dermatocarpon deminuensandD. leptophyllodesare confirmed as British; the nameD. leptophyllumshould be deleted from the British list. The nameD. meiophyllumis shown to be based on discordant elements. A key is provided to the British and Irish species.     

A Y chromosome census of the British Isles

The degree of population replacement in the British Isles associated with cultural changes has been extensively debated. Recent work has demonstrated that comparisons of genetic variation in the British Isles and on the European Continent can illuminate specific demographic processes in the history of the British Isles. For example, Wilson et al. used the similarity of Basque and Celtic Y chromosomes to argue for genetic continuity from the Upper Palaeolithic to the present in the paternal history of these populations (see also ). Differences in the Y chromosome composition of these groups also suggested genetic signatures of Norwegian influence in the Orkney Islands north of the Scottish mainland, an important center of Viking activities between 800 and 1300 A.D. More recently, Weale et al. argued for substantial Anglo-Saxon male migration into central England based on the analysis of eight British sample sets collected on an east-west transect across England and Wales. To provide a more complete assessment of the paternal genetic history of the British Isles, we have compared the Y chromosome composition of multiple geographically distant British sample sets with collections from Norway (two sites), Denmark, and Germany and with collections from central Ireland, representing, respectively, the putative invading and the indigenous populations. By analyzing 1772 Y chromosomes from 25 predominantly small urban locations, we found that different parts of the British Isles have sharply different paternal histories; the degree of population replacement and genetic continuity shows systematic variation across the sampled areas.     

OBSERVATIONS ON THE LICHEN FLORA OF HIGH GROUND IN THE WEST OF IRELAND

The lichen flora of high ground in the west of Ireland is described by reference to four localities (Brandon Mountain, Muckanaght, Ben Bulben, Slieve League). These were selected on the basis of their reputation for calcicolous alpine vascular plants and for being some of the most highly oceanic mountains in Europe. The montane element in the lichen flora is strictly limited, populations being small and isolated, although sub-montane species are more frequent. A small group of 44 species has been identified, which is 30% fewer than is found in either the Lake District or Snowdonia; their distribution and ecology are described. The margin of high-level tarns on Brandon Mountain support communities of outstanding importance, includingRinodina fimbriata, new to the British Isles. Seventeen lichens are reported as being new to Ireland. 1996 The British Lichen Society     

Genetic and phenotypic differentiation between invasive and native Rhododendron (Ericaceae) taxa and the role of hybridization

Hybridization has been repeatedly put forward to explain the invasiveness of Rhododendron ponticum L. in the British Isles. The present study investigates the pattern of ecotypic differentiation and hybridization among native North American R. catawbiense and R. maximum, native R. ponticum from Georgia and Spain, and invasive R. ponticum from Ireland and aims to assess the contribution of hybridization for Rhododendron invasion in the British Isles. Six populations per taxon were analyzed with AFLP markers for genetic dissimilarity, subjected to germination and growth experiments, and tested for frost hardiness. We assessed variation in morphological and ecological characteristics to identify traits displaying evidence of hybridization, thus, promoting invasiveness. Molecular marker analyses revealed a clear distinction between North American R. catawbiense and R. maximum on the one hand, and all R. ponticum populations on the other hand, displaying a complete intermixture of native Spanish and invasive Irish populations. Multivariate analyses of traits revealed leaf length-width ratio, relative growth rates (RGRs) in leaf length, root biomass, and shoot-root ratio to significantly discriminate between the different taxa and unequivocally assigned invasive Irish R. ponticum to the Spanish phenotypes. While the Irish R. ponticum had similar growth traits as conspecific native R. ponticum provenances, germination and biomass allocation were more similar to North American R. catawbiense and R. maximum. Hybridization did not contribute to explaining invasiveness of R. ponticum in Ireland. The similarity in germination and biomass allocation of invasive Irish R. ponticum and North American species has evolved independently and can more probably be attributed to an independent shift within the Ponticum cluster in Ireland.     

Stoats (Mustela erminea) provide evidence of natural overland colonization of Ireland

The current Irish biota has controversial origins. Ireland was largely covered by ice at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and may not have had land connections to continental Europe and Britain thereafter. Given the potential difficulty for terrestrial species to colonize Ireland except by human introduction, we investigated the stoat (Mustela erminea) as a possible cold-tolerant model species for natural colonization of Ireland at the LGM itself. The stoat currently lives in Ireland and Britain and across much of the Holarctic region including the high Arctic. We studied mitochondrial DNA variation (1771 bp) over the whole geographical range of the stoat (186 individuals and 142 localities), but with particular emphasis on the British Isles and continental Europe. Irish stoats showed considerably greater nucleotide and haplotype diversity than those in Britain. Bayesian dating is consistent with an LGM colonization of Ireland and suggests that Britain was colonized later. This later colonization probably reflects a replacement event, which can explain why Irish and British stoats belong to different mitochondrial lineages as well as different morphologically defined subspecies. The molecular data strongly indicate that stoats colonized Ireland naturally and that their genetic variability reflects accumulation of mutations during a population expansion on the island.     

Host specificity of the parasite fauna of perch Perca fluviatilis L. from the British Isles, with special reference to a study at Llyn Tegid (Wales)

Five-hundred and fifty-nine perch ( Perca fluviatilis L.) were examined from Llyn Tegid between January 1975-July 1976 for protozoan and metazoan parasites. Sixteen species of parasites were recorded, and these results were compared to previous studies at Llyn Tegid, and elsewhere in the British Isles. It was concluded that the parasite fauna of perch is influenced by the diversity and abundance of the local aquatic invertebrate fauna, the local ichthyofauna, the local piscivorous avian fauna and the history and geographic isolation of the environment. The importance of a large series of observations on a variety of habitats was stressed.     

Introductions, spread and colonization of new localities by fish helminth and crustacean parasites in the British Isles: a perspective and appraisal

Most parasites are disseminated by movements of infected hosts. The increasing extent and rapidity of anthropochore fish movements are causing increased concern related to awareness of their potential and known capacity for disseminating parasites. This paper puts these data in perspective by examining examples of actual and potential translocations of fish helminthes and crustaceans by anthropochore movements offish into and throughout the British Isles, and by distinguishing the processes of dissemination and invasiveness from those of colonization and establishment. An investigation of the British fish and helminth parasite fauna suggests that: (1) the range of many species is not well known, many are local in distribution and appearances beyond the range may reflect detection and patchiness, not translocation; (2) taxonomic problems in many groups hinder detection and determination of range; (3) most parasites possess the attributes of good colonizers so the natural expansion and contraction of ranges are often not noticed or recognized as such and the importance of parasite introductions by natural movements of fish or avian hosts is generally underestimated; (4) invasions are far commoner than colonizations, since conditions for establishment may be very restricted and transmission windows very narrow in time and space; (5) successful colonizations and translocations tend to be documented and attract attention whereas invasions resulting in failed colonizations are seldom observed and more seldom documented, thus biasing our perception. Given the extensive history of fish introductions to, and translocations within, the British Isles it is surprising how few fish helminths and crustaceans have invaded the country successfully (16 species: 11·4%) and how many still show restricted distributions. The majority (68·7%) of introduced helminths are associated with fish having ornamental varieties. Barriers of colonization are more effective than those to invasion and it is clear that most translocations and invasions fail. It is right to be concerned about the dangers, but it is also important to put anthropochore factors in perspective.     

Potential transmission of West Nile virus in the British Isles: an ecological review of candidate mosquito bridge vectors

West Nile virus (WNV) transmitted by mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) infects various vertebrates, being pathogenic for birds, horses and humans. After its discovery in tropical Africa, sporadic outbreaks of WNV occurred during recent decades in Eurasia, but not the British Isles. WNV reached New York in 1999 and spread to California by 2003, causing widespread outbreaks of West Nile encephalitis across North America, transmitted by many species of mosquitoes, mainly Culex spp. The periodic reappearance of WNV in parts of continental Europe (from southern France to Romania) gives rise to concern over the possibility of WNV invading the British Isles. The British Isles have about 30 endemic mosquito species, several with seasonal abundance and other eco-behavioural characteristics predisposing them to serve as potential WNV bridge vectors from birds to humans. These include: the predominantly ornithophilic Culex pipiens L. and its anthropophilic biotype molestus Forskal; tree-hole adapted Anopheles plumbeus Stephens; saltmarsh-adapted Ochlerotatus caspius Pallas, Oc. detritus Haliday and Oc. dorsalis (Meigen); Coquillettidia richiardii Ficalbi, Culiseta annulata Schrank and Cs. morsitans (Theobald) from vegetated freshwater pools; Aedes cinereus Meigen, Oc. cantans Meigen and Oc. punctor Kirby from seasonal woodland pools. Those underlined have been found carrying WNV in other countries (12 species), including the rarer British species Aedes vexans (Meigen), Culex europaeus Ramos et al., Cx. modestus Ficalbi and Oc. sticticus (Meigen) as well as the Anopheles maculipennis Meigen complex (mainly An. atroparvus van Thiel and An. messeae Falleroni in Britain). Those implicated as key vectors of WNV in Europe are printed bold (four species). So far there is no proof of any arbovirus transmission by mosquitoes in the British Isles, although antibodies to Sindbis, Tahyna, Usutu and West Nile viruses have been detected in British birds. Neighbouring European countries have enzootic WNV and human infections transmitted by mosquito species that are present in the British Isles. However, except for localized urban infestations of Cx. pipiens biotype molestus that can be readily eliminated, there appear to be few situations in the British Isles where humans and livestock are exposed to sustained risks of exposure to potential WNV vectors. Monitoring of mosquitoes and arbovirus surveillance are required to guard the British Isles against WNV outbreaks and introduction of more anthropophilic mosquitoes such as Stegomyia albopicta (Skuse) and Ochlerotatus japonicus (Theobald) that have recently invaded Europe, since they transmit arboviruses elsewhere.