A natural focus ofHistoplasma capsulatum var.duboisii is a bat cave

The natural reservoir ofHistoplasma capsulatum var.duboisii, the etiological agent of histoplasmosis duboisii (African histoplasmosis) is not yet known. We report the isolation ofH. capsulatum var.duboisii from soil admixed with bat guano and from the intestinal contents of a bat in a sandstone cave in a rural area, Ogbunike in Anambra State of Nigeria. Eight of 45 samples of soil admixed with bat guano yieldedH. capsulatum var.duboisii. Of the 35 bats belonging to the speciesNycteris hispida andTadirida pumila examined, only one (N. hispida) yielded this fungus from its intestinal contents. Identification of the isolates asHistoplasma was confirmed by exoantigen tests and by mating with tester strains ofH. capsulatum. In vitro conversion to large yeast from suggestive ofH. capsulatum var.duboisii was obtained on brain heart infusion agar supplemented with sheep blood and glutamine or cysteine. Pathogenicity tests with mice for all the isolates confirmed their identity by the demonstration of large yeast forms (8–15 µm in diameter) within giant cells in the infected tissues. Investigations on the possible occurrence of human infections in the area are in progress.A poster based on this work was presented at the 11th ISHAM Congress in Montreal, Canada (22–28 June 1991), La-Hoffman Roche, Basel, Switzerland kindly financed the trip of one of us (H.C.G) for the Congress.     

Gingival histoplasmosis: An atypical presentation of African histoplasmosis in three baboons (Papio spp)

Gingival lesions as the sole manifestation of African histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii) have never been reported in baboons. Grossly, lesions can be indistinguishable from bacterial ulcerative gingivitis or gingival hyperplasia. Clinical outcomes of primary gingival histoplasmosis in baboons are unknown and may complicate colony management decisions.     

Histoplasmosis in Africa: Current perspectives,knowledge gaps,and research priorities

BackgroundHistoplasmosis is a chronic granulomatous disease caused by the thermally dimorphic fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. The 2 variants Histoplasma capsulatum var. capsulatum (Hcc) and Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii (Hcd) causes infection in humans and commonly termed classical or American histoplasmosis and African histoplasmosis, respectively. Histoplasma capsulatum var. farciminosum (Hcf) affects equines. In recent times, there have been heightened sensitization on fungal infections such as histoplasmosis in Africa, aimed at improving awareness among relevant stakeholders, particularly healthcare workers. This effort is expected to be paralleled with increased detection of both classical and African histoplasmosis, which has remained underdiagnosed over the years. In this narrative review, we describe the current perspectives of histoplasmosis in Africa, identify knowledge gaps, and suggest research priorities.MethodsA PubMed, Google Scholar, and Africa Journal Online (AJOL) literature search was conducted for studies on histoplasmosis in Africa between 2000 and 2020. Histoplasmosis essays in medical mycology textbooks were also consulted. This narrative review was prepared from the data gathered.FindingsIn the past 2 decades, histoplasmosis in general has seen a relative increase in case detection in some Africa countries, probably attributable to the gradually increasing medical mycology advocacy efforts in Africa. Histoplasmosis cases are dominated by African histoplasmosis mostly in Western and Central Africa, while classical histoplasmosis is more common in Southern and Northern Africa. Although both classical and African histoplasmosis are common in Africa, the latter is more restricted to Africa, and cases outside the continent usually have a travel history to the continent. Despite the clinical and laboratory difference between African histoplasmosis and classical histoplasmosis, it is not straightforward to distinguish them. The typical manifestation of African histoplasmosis is the appearance of lesions affecting the skin, bones, and lymph nodes and unusually linked to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS. By contrast, classical histoplasmosis mostly affects the lungs and is often associated with immunosuppression, mainly HIV/AIDS. The present perspectives of histoplasmosis in Africa highlight unclear details on the true burden, strain diversity, infection route and genetic basis of African histoplasmosis, availability of specie-specific diagnostic tools, and compliance with recommended antifungal therapy. These knowledge gaps represent research questions that require scientific exploration.ConclusionsDespite a subtle increase in identifying histoplasmosis cases in Africa, it remains underdiagnosed and neglected in some parts of the continent. Increasing awareness and training among healthcare workers, bridging diagnostic and therapeutic gaps, and encouraging more research in Africa are crucial to improve the current perspectives of histoplasmosis in Africa.     

Frequency of the Mating-Type (MAT1) in Histoplasma capsulatum Isolates from Buenos Aires,Argentina

Sex is genetically determined in Histoplasma capsulatum, governed by a sex-specific region in the genome called the mating-type locus (MAT1). We investigate the distribution of isolates of two H. capsulatum mating types in the clades circulating in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Forty-nine H. capsulatum isolates were obtained from the culture collection of the Mycology Center. The MAT1 locus was identified by PCR from the yeast suspension. The analysis of forty-eight isolates from clinical samples exhibited a ratio of 1.7 (MAT1-1:MAT1-2) and the only isolate from soil was MAT1-1. Forty-five H. capsulatum isolates belonged to the LAm B clade (H. capsulatum from Latin American group B clade) and showed a ratio of 1.8 (MAT1-1:MAT1-2). These results suggest an association between the mating types in isolates belonging to the LAm B clade. It remains to be defined whether a greater virulence should be attributed to the differences between the strains of the opposite mating type of the LAm B clade.

     

Large forms of histoplasma

Summary Various types of large forms ofHistoplasma were studied in experimentally infected hamster and mouse tissues.Histoplasma can be found in the yeast phase in 5 distinct forms: 1. the classicalHistoplasma capsulatum form (ovoid, 2–5 µ in size); 2. occasional large forms in necrotic tissue and old cultures (up to 9 µ); 3. induced large forms in tissue explants (up to 20 µ); 4. small or large yeast cells surrounded by halos (up to 30 µ) and 5. the duboisii form (up to 22 or more) found exclusively inHistoplasma duboisii. Correlations between the above large forms with the classical small form were discussed.Histoplasma duboisii and the classicalHistoplasma capsulatum can be separated (1) by its size in the parasitic phase in vivo and in vitro; (2) by its different pathogenicity for experimental animals and (3) by the most particular tissue response in hamsters and in mice.This project was in part supported by Research Grant E-576 of the National Institutes of Health and a grant of the Squibb Institute for Medical Research.     

Reverse genetics through random mutagenesis in Histoplasma capsulatum

Background  

The dimorphic fungal pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum causes respiratory and systemic disease in humans and other mammals. Progress in understanding the mechanisms underlying the biology and the pathogenesis of Histoplasma has been hindered by a shortage of methodologies for mutating a gene of interest.     

Extracellular proteolytic enzyme activity ofHistoplasma capsulatum var.duboisii

Histoplasma capsulatum var.duboisii is the etiological agent of African histoplasmosis, an important deep mycosis in West Africa. Not much is known about the physiological properties of this fungus. This communication reports on the extracellular proteolytic enzyme activity of this fungus. Five isolates of this fungus tested hydrolyzed azocasein and bovine serum albumin at pH 6.8 and 8.0. Assay of the crude enzyme showed that proteolytic activity increased with age and peaked on the 10th day and then again on the 13th day for the yeast form, and on the 11th day of growth for the mycelial form. The optimum temperature and pH for maximum enzyme activity were 35 °C and 6.8 respectively. The proteinase activity was more pronounced with the yeast form than with the mycelial form. The action of enzyme inhibitors suggested the presence of an aspartyl proteinase.     

The asteroid body of lobomycosis

The epidemiology of histoplasmosis duboisii (African histoplasmosis) is not well understood. The present study was carried out to investigate the prevalence of skin sensitivity and to determine by immunodiffusion the presence of antibodies among humans to histoplasmin around a recently discovered natural focus of Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii in a bat cave in Ogbunike in the Anambra State of Nigeria. Out of the 40 subjects, all young adults aged 18–30 years, comprising cave guides, traders and farmers examined in the immediate vicinity of the cave, 14 (35.0%) gave a positive skin test. In another population of the same age group, comprising 620 persons, viz. traders, farmers, palm oil workers and some patients attending rural clinics, examined in other nearby areas in Anambra State, 55 (8.8%) reacted positively to histoplasmin. In the immunodiffusion tests, 2 (2.08%) of the 96 school children and 17 (9.4%) of the 181 young adults, including farmers, palm oil workers and traders tested amongst the population around the cave, demonstrated precipitating antibodies to histoplasmin in their sera. Only 5 (0.79%) of the 630 adults of the same age group with similar occupations examined from other areas in Anambra State had precipitating antibodies. Out of another 50 subjects examined, viz.; wood workers, traders, farmers, and school teachers in Nsukka in the Enugu State, two (4.0%) demonstrated antibodies. It is suggested that asymptomatic infections due to the duboisii variety of H. capsulatum may be common in the human population around the cave. A diligent search with the help of local hospitals and public health officials may reveal clinical cases of histoplasmosis duboisii with cutaneous and systemic lesions.     

Is Histoplasma capsulatum a native inhabitant of Japan?

Histoplasmosis is an infectious disease caused by inhaling spores of the fungal pathogen H. capsulatum and in Japan is considered an imported mycosis. However, some patients in Japan with histoplasmosis have no history of traveling overseas nor of risk of occupational exposure to Histoplasma. To investigate the possibility of native distribution of Histoplasma in Japan, 187 bat guano samples from 67 bat‐inhabited caves in 17 prefectures were collected. These were examined for H. capsulatum by culture and Histoplasma‐specific PCR in three independent laboratories. No H. capsulatum was detected by either method, therefore H. capsulatum is unlikely to be present in bat guano in Japanese caves.     

Systematics of Amaryllidaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid sequence data

Cladistic analyses of plastid DNA sequences rbcL and trnL-F are presented separately and combined for 48 genera of Amaryllidaceae and 29 genera of related asparagalean families. The combined analysis is the most highly resolved of the three and provides good support for the monophyly of Amaryllidaceae and indicates Agapanthaceae as its sister family. Alliaceae are in turn sister to the Amaryllidaceae/Agapanthaceae clade. The origins of the family appear to be western Gondwanaland (Africa), and infrafamilial relationships are resolved along biogeographic lines. Tribe Amaryllideae, primarily South African, is sister to the rest of Amaryllidaceae; this tribe is supported by numerous morphological synapomorphies as well. The remaining two African tribes of the family, Haemantheae and Cyrtantheae, are well supported, but their position relative to the Australasian Calostemmateae and a large clade comprising the Eurasian and American genera, is not yet clear. The Eurasian and American elements of the family are each monophyletic sister clades. Internal resolution of the Eurasian clade only partially supports currently accepted tribal concepts, and few conclusions can be drawn on the relationships of the genera based on these data. A monophyletic Lycorideae (Central and East Asian) is weakly supported. Galanthus and Leucojum (Galantheae pro parte) are supported as sister genera by the bootstrap. The American clade shows a higher degree of internal resolution. Hippeastreae (minus Griffinia and Worsleya) are well supported, and Zephyranthinae are resolved as a distinct subtribe. An Andean clade marked by a chromosome number of 2n = 46 (and derivatives thereof) is resolved with weak support. The plastid DNA phylogenies are discussed in the context of biogeography and character evolution in the family.     

Rethinking the evolution of extant sub‐Saharan African suids (Suidae,Artiodactyla)

Gongora, J., Cuddahee, R. E., do Nascimento, F. F., Palgrave, C. J., Lowden, S., Ho, S. Y. W., Simond, D., Damayanti, C. S., White, D. J., Tay, W. T., Randi, E., Klingel, H., Rodrigues‐Zarate, C. J., Allen, K., Moran, C. & Larson, G. (2011). Rethinking the evolution of extant sub‐Saharan African suids (Suidae, Artiodactyla). —Zoologica Scripta, 40, 327–335. Although African suids have been of scientific interest for over two centuries, their origin, evolution, phylogeography and phylogenetic relationships remain contentious. There has been a long‐running debate concerning the evolution of pigs and hogs (Suidae), particularly regarding the phylogenetic relationships among extant Eurasian and African species of the subfamily Suinae. To investigate these issues, we analysed the mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences of extant genera of Suidae from Eurasia and Africa. Molecular phylogenetic analyses revealed that all extant sub‐Saharan African genera form a monophyletic clade separate from Eurasian suid genera, contradicting previous attempts to resolve the Suidae phylogeny. Two major sub‐Saharan African clades were identified, with Hylochoerus and Phacochoerus grouping together as a sister clade to Potamochoerus. In addition, we find that the ancestors of extant African suids may have evolved separately from the ancestors of modern day Sus and Porcula in Eurasia before they colonised Africa. Our results provide a revision of the intergeneric relationships within the family Suidae.     

Complete taxon sampling of the avian genus Pica (magpies) reveals ancient relictual populations and synchronous Late‐Pleistocene demographic expansion across the Northern Hemisphere

Previous studies have suggested that bird populations in east Asia were less affected by Pleistocene climatic fluctuations than those in Europe and North America. However, this is mainly based on comparisons among species. It would be more relevant to analyse geographical populations of widespread species or species complexes. We analyzed two mitochondrial genes and two nuclear introns for all taxa of Pica to investigate 1) which Earth history factors have shaped the lineage divergence, and 2) whether different geographical populations were differently affected by the Pleistocene climatic changes. Our mitochondrial tree recovered three widespread lineages, 1) in east Asia, 2) across north Eurasia, and 3) in North America, respectively, with three isolated lineages in northwest Africa, Arabia and the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau, respectively. Divergences among lineages took place 1.4–3.1 million yr ago. The northwest African population was sister to the others, which formed two main clades. In one of these, Arabia was sister to Qinghai‐Tibet, and these formed the sister clade to the east Asia clade. The other main clade comprised the North American and north Eurasian clades. There was no or very slight structure within these six geographical clades, including a lack of differentiation between the two North American species black‐billed magpie P. hudsonia and yellow‐billed magpie P. nutalli. Demographic expansion was recorded in the three most widespread lineages after 0.06 Ma. Asymmetric gene flow was recorded in the north Eurasian clade from southwestern Europe eastward, whereas the east Asian clade was rooted in south central China. Our results indicate that the fragmentation of the six clades of Pica was related to climatic cooling and aridification during periods of the Pliocene–Pleistocene. Populations on both sides of the Eurasian continent were similarly influenced by the Pleistocene climate changes and expanded concomitantly with the expansion of steppes. Based on results we also propose a revised taxonomy recognising seven species of Pica.     

The isolation of histoplasma duboisii and keratinophilic fungi from soils of east africa

Summary Isolation ofHistoplasma duboisii marks the first incidence of this African pathogen being found in the soil of Kenya.Investigation of keratinophilic fungi in soil from Kenya and Tanzania produced 27 isolates of dermatophytes belonging to the four known genera of this group.Trichophyton evolceanui was found in five of these samples.It is to be noted that localities frequented by wild and domestic animals produced a higher incidence of keratinophilic fungi than did the unshady, isolated areas.     

MORPHOLOGICAL AND GENETIC VARIATION IN THE POPULATIONS OF SARGASSUM HEMIPHYLLUM (PHAEOPHYCEAE) IN THE NORTHWESTERN PACIFIC1

Difficulty in species identification of Sargassum (Sargassaceae, Fucales) is partly attributed to the high polymorphism among its individuals and populations. This study aimed at assessing morphological and genetic variations in two varieties, var. hemiphyllum J. Agardh and var. chinense J. Agardh, of Sargassum hemiphyllum (Turner) C. Agardh, a widely distributed species in the northwestern Pacific. We investigated 26 measurable, five numerical, and 33 categorical morphological parameters associated with different branching levels of specimens from each of six localities within its distribution range using cluster analysis (CA) and principal coordinate analysis (PCoA). Leaf size of the primary and secondary branching levels and the vesicle size of the secondary branches of the specimens examined were determined to be the most important morphological parameters that were significantly different among populations. Change in leaf and vesicle length of individuals among the six populations followed a latitudinal gradient, with smaller leaves and vesicles associated with northern populations and larger ones in the southern populations. The possible influence of the gradual change in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) along this gradient in the northwestern Pacific on leaf and vesicle morphologies of this species was suggested. PCR‐RFLP analysis of the RUBISCO spacer in the chloroplast genome revealed two distinct and highly homogenous clades, a China clade and a Japan‐Korea clade, which corresponded to var. chinense and var. hemiphyllum, respectively. The formation of refugia along the “Paleo‐coast” in the East China Sea during glacial periods is suggested to have led to the vicariance of ancestral populations of S. hemiphyllum and thus to have promoted genetic differentiation. The massive freshwater outflow of the Yellow and Yangtze rivers may continue to act as a barrier, prolonging the allopatric distribution of the two varieties.     

Étude antigenique des agents des mycoses profondes par l' analyse comparee des milieux de culture

Résumé L'analyse immunoélectrophorétique comparée des mosaiques antigéniques des milieux de cultures d'Histoplasma capsulatum, d'H. duboisii, d'H. farciminosum, Gymnoascus demonbreunii, Blastomyces dermatitidis etParacoccidioides brasiliensis nous conduit aux conclusions suivantes: 1)H. capsulatum etG. demonbreunii ont très peu de fractions antigéniques communes. L'immunologie confirme donc que la deuxième espèce ne constitue pas la forme sexuée de la première. 2) Les structures antigéniques d'H. capsulatum et d'H. duboisii sont extrêmement voisines, peut-être même identiques sur le plan qualitatif du moins. 3) Les trois espèces du genreHistoplasma etBlastomyces dermatitidis présentent d'importantes communautés de structure qui correspondent aux deux tiers de leurs mosaiques antigéniques. Leur répartition en deux genres distincts établie sur des bases morphologiques n'est donc pas étayée par des arguments complémentaires de nature immunologique.La mosaique antigénique deP. brasiliensis présente de son côté suffisamment d'analogie avec celle des 4 espèces précédentes pour suggérer que ces divers champignons appartiennent à des genres phylogénétiquement voisins.La forme sexuée deB. dermatitidis étant rattachée par son inventeur auxGymnoascaceae, on est conduit à penser que les agents des mycoses viscérales étudiés dans notre travail, auxquels sans doute il conviendrait de joindreCoccidioides immitis, appartiennent à cette famille. Cette dernière dont dépendent déjà les Dermatophytes aurait ainsi en mycologie médicale une importance primordiale.

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Comparative immunoelectrophoretic studies on antigenic structure of culture media ofHistoplasma capsulatum, H. duboisii, H. farciminosum, Gymnoascus demonbeunii, Blastomyces dermatitidis andParacoccidioides brasiliensis allowed the following comments: 1)H. capsulatum andG. demonbreunii share a few antigenic fractions. This appears as an immunological confirmation that the later species should not be considered as the sexual form of the former one. 2) Antigenic structures ofH. capsulatum andH. duboisii are very closely related and somewhat identical at least from a qualitative point of view. 3) The three species of the genusHistoplasma andBlastomyces dermatitidis demonstrate important structural communities which concern two third of their antigenic mosaic. Their separation into two distinct genera based on morphological arguments is therefore not confirmed by immunological data. 4) Antigenic structure ofP. brasiliensis shows a sufficient analogy with that of the previous species to suggest the belonging of these various fungi to phyletically related genera.The sexual form ofB. dermatitidis being classified by its discoverer in theGymnoascaceae, this leads to think that the various agents of deep mycoses under review, to which it should be convenient to addCoccidioides immitis belong to this family. This family, including also Dermatophytes would thus have in medical mycology a primordial importance.

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Zusammenfassung Vergleichende, immunoelektrophoretische Untersuchungen an der Antigenstruktur der Nährböden vonH. capsulatum, H. duboisii, H. farciminosum, Gymnoascus demonbreunii, B. dermatitidis undParacoccidioides brasiliensis erlauben die folgenden Bemerkungen: 1)H. capsulatum undG. demonbreunii haben einige Antigenfraktionen gemeinsam. Es erscheint als eine immunobiologische Bestätigung, daß die letztere Art nicht als die sexuelle Forin der ersteren betrachtet werden soll. 2) Die Antigenstrukturen vonH. capsulatum undH. duboisii sind nah verwandt und etwas identisch, wenigstens vom qualitativen Standpunkt. 3) Die drei Arten der GattungenHistoplasma undBlastomyces dermatitidis zeigen wichtige strukturelle Gemeinschaften, die Zwei-drittel ihres antigenischen Mosaik betrifft. Ihre Trennung in zwei ausgesprochene Gattungen auf dem Grunde morphologischer Beweisführung ist durch immunologische Daten nicht bestätigt. 4) Die Antigenstruktur vonP. brasiliensis zeigt eine genügende Analogie mit denen der vorherigen Arten, um eine Zugehörigkeit dieser verschiedenen Pilze zu phyletisch verwandten Gattungen anzunehmen. Da die Geschlechtsform vonB. dermatitidis durch den Entdecker als zu denGymnoascaceae gehörig klassifiziert wurde, könnte man folgern, daß die verschiedenen Pathogens der deep-seated Mykosen, zu welchen auch nochC. immitis zugehört, derselben Familie angehören. Diese Familie, die Dermatophyten mit eingeschlossen, würde also eine überragende Wichtigkeit innehaben.

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Travail effectué avec l'aide de l'I.N.S.E.R.M. et de l'O.M.S.     

Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Podostemaceae: implications for taxonomy of major groups

The river‐weed family Podostemaceae (c. 300 species in c. 54 genera) shows a number of morphological innovations to be adapted to its unusual aquatic habitat, and its unique or rare bauplan features have been reflected in the traditional (i.e. non‐molecular) classification recognizing numerous monotypic or oligospecific genera. The infrasubfamilial relationships of many genera remained unclear. The present study used molecular phylogenetic analysis of matK sequences for 657 samples (c. 132 species/c. 43 genera). The family was traditionally divided into three subfamilies (Podostemoideae, Tristichoideae and Weddellinoideae). American Podostemoideae were shown to be polyphyletic and divided into four clades, i.e. Ceratolacis, Diamantina, Podostemum and all other genera. Among the podostemoid clades, Diamantina was the first branching clade and a clade comprising Mourera and the Apinagia subclade was then sister to the remainder of the New World and Old World Podostemoideae with low statistic supports. The Old World Podostemoideae comprised four monophyletic clades, i.e. two African clades, one Madagascan clade and one Asian clade, although the relationships among these clades and American Ceratolacis and Podostemum were poorly resolved. African Podostemoideae were polyphyletic, with Saxicolella pro parte being weakly supported as sister to the remaining Old World Podostemoideae plus Ceratolacis and Podostemum. In contrast to the American and African clades, monophyly of four Asian subclades was well supported. Plants of Tristicha (Tristichoideae) and of Weddellina (Weddellinoideae), which are currently treated as monospecific, had great matK differentiation equivalent to at least interspecific variation. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 169 , 461–492.     

Immunology of histoplasmosis: Humoral and cellular activity from a polysacchari-de-protein complex and its deproteinized fraction in experimentally immunized mice

In a previous publication it was reported that a polysaccharide-protein complex (PPC), sensitive to -glucosidase, was isolated from Histoplasma capsulatum. This complex was strongly reactive in an agar gel diffusion assay with sera from patients with histoplasmosis, but was unreactive with sera from patients with coccidioidomycosis. Here, the studies with human sera have been expanded and attempts were made to determine the response of mice immunized with nonviable H. capsulatum or Cocccidioides immitis to PPC or its deproteinized fraction (D-PPC) using more sensitive tests for antibody and including also test for cell-mediated immunity. Histoplasmin and coccidioidin were compared with PPC or its deproteinized fraction (D-PPC) in all assays. In a counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE) assay, PPC and D-PPC reacted only with sera from patients with histoplasmosis, whereas cross reactions were noted with histoplasmin and coccidioidin using heterologous sera. Cross-reaction were observed with all four antigen preparations and both types of antisera using a micro complement fixation assay. The assay for macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) was also relatively nonspecific, in that inhibition occurred with cells from animals sensitized with Histoplasma or Coccidioides using both homologous and heterologous antigens. In the footpad assay, histoplasmin and coccidioidin were highly cross-reactive in animals sensitized with the heterologous fungus, but the PPC and D-PPC from H. capsulatum elicited significant reactions only in animals sensitized with Histoplasma.     

Histoplasmosis in the Republic of Congo dominated by African histoplasmosis,Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii

The Republic of Congo (RoC) is one of the African countries with the most histoplasmosis cases reported. This review summarizes the current status regarding epidemiology, diagnostic tools, and treatment of histoplasmosis in the RoC. A computerized search was performed from online databases Medline, PubMed, HINARI, and Google Scholar to collect literature on histoplasmosis in the RoC. We found 57 cases of histoplasmosis diagnosed between 1954 and 2019, corresponding to an incidence rate of 1–3 cases each year without significant impact of the AIDS epidemic in the country. Of the 57 cases, 54 (94.7%) were cases of Histoplasma capsulatum var. duboisii (Hcd) infection, African histoplasmosis. Three cases (5.3%) of Histoplasma capsulatum var. capsulatum infection were recorded, but all were acquired outside in the RoC. The patients’ ages ranged between 13 months to 60 years. An equal number of cases were observed in adults in the third or fourth decades (n = 14; 24.6%) and in children aged ≤15 years. Skin lesions (46.3%), lymph nodes (37%), and bone lesions (26%) were the most frequent clinical presentations. Most diagnoses were based on histopathology and distinctive large yeast forms seen in tissue. Amphotericin B (AmB) was first line therapy in 65% of the cases and itraconazole (25%) for maintenance therapy. The occurrence of African histoplasmosis in apparently normal children raises the possibility that African histoplasmosis is linked to environmental fungal exposure.     

Biosystematic studies on the genus Heloniopsis (Melanthiaceae) I. Phylogeny inferred from plastid DNA sequences and taxonomic implications

Based on a combined dataset of plastid DNA sequences (atpB‐rbcL, trnG, trnL‐trnL‐trnF, trnK 5' intron and matK) from 60 individuals, we conducted parsimony and likelihood analyses to clarify the phylogenetic relationships among the six species and three varieties that are commonly recognised in Heloniopsis, in addition to the related genera Ypsilandra and Helonias, using Chamaelirium and Chionographis as an outgroup. According to the single most parsimonious tree, which was identical to the maximum‐likelihood tree in topology, Helonias, Ypsilandra and Heloniopsis are all monophyletic with 100% bootstrap support (BS). In Heloniopsis, there are two highly supported clades (BS 94–97%): a clade of Korean species and a clade of Japanese and Taiwanese species. The latter clade comprised the following four subclades (BS 99–100%): 1) H. orientalis var. orientalis, 2) H. orientalis var. breviscapa and var. flavida, 3) H. kawanoi and 4) H. leucantha and H. umbellata. Because subclades 1 and 2 did not form a monophyletic group, and do show clear morphological differences – including nectary position, nectary‐sac structure and leaf margin undulation – they should be distinguished at the species level: H. orientalis for subclade 1 and H. breviscapa for subclade 2. In subclade 2, neither var. breviscapa nor var. flavida was monophyletic; instead, var. breviscapa plus var. flavida (thick‐leaved entity) was monophyletic (BS 62–63%) and var. flavida (thin‐leaved entity) was monophyletic (BS 86–87%). As var. breviscapa and var. flavida (thick‐leaved entity) share basally ± pinkish wide tepals and dark‐coloured thick leaves, in contrast to var. flavida (thin‐leaved entity), which has completely white narrow tepals and light‐coloured thin leaves, the two varieties should may be kept distinct after the merge of var. flavida (thick‐leaved entity) with var. breviscapa.