The contribution of cacao agroforests to the conservation of lower canopy ant and beetle diversity in Indonesia

The ongoing destruction of tropical rainforests has increased the interest in the potential value of tropical agroforests for the conservation of biodiversity. Traditional, shaded agroforests may support high levels of biodiversity, for some groups even approaching that of undisturbed tropical forests. However, it is unclear to what extent forest fauna is represented in this diversity and how management affects forest fauna in agroforests. We studied lower canopy ant and beetle fauna in cacao agroforests and forests in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, a region dominated by cacao agroforestry. We compared ant and beetle species richness and composition in forests and cacao agroforests and studied the impact of two aspects of management intensification (the decrease in shade tree diversity and in shade canopy cover) on ant and beetle diversity. The agroforests had three types of shade that represented a decrease in tree diversity (high, intermediate and low diversity). Species richness of ants and beetles in the canopies of the cacao trees was similar to that found in lower canopy forest trees. However, the composition of ant and beetle communities differed greatly between the agroforest and forest sites. Forest beetles suffered profoundly from the conversion to agroforests: only 12.5% of the beetle species recorded in the forest sites were also found in the agroforests and those species made up only 5% of all beetles collected from cacao. In contrast, forest ants were well represented in agroforests, with 75% of all species encountered in the forest sites also occurring on cacao. The reduction of shade tree diversity had no negative effect on ants and beetles on cacao trees. Beetle abundances and non-forest ant species richness even increased with decreasing shade tree diversity. Thinning of the shade canopy was related to a decrease in richness of forest ant species on cacao trees but not of beetles. The contrasting responses of ants and beetles to shade tree management emphasize that conservation plans that focus on one taxonomic group may not work for others. Overall ant and beetle diversity can remain high in shaded agroforests but the conservation of forest ants and beetles in particular depends primarily on the protection of natural forests, which for forest ants can be complemented by the conservation of adjacent shaded cacao agroforests.     

Colony-structure variation and interspecific competitive ability in the invasive Argentine ant

The success of some invasive species may depend on phenotypic changes that occur following introduction. In Argentine ants ( Linepithema humile) introduced populations typically lack intraspecific aggression, but native populations display such behavior commonly. We employ three approaches to examine how this behavioral shift might influence interspecific competitive ability. In a laboratory experiment, we reared colonies of Forelius mccooki with pairs of Argentine ant colonies that either did or did not exhibit intraspecific aggression. F. mccooki reared with intraspecifically non-aggressive pairs of Argentine ants produced fewer eggs, foraged less actively, and supported fewer living workers than those reared with intraspecifically aggressive pairs. At natural contact zones between competing colonies of L. humile and F. mccooki, the introduction of experimental Argentine ant colonies that fought with conspecific field colonies caused L. humile to abandon baits in the presence of F. mccooki, whereas the introduction of colonies that did not fight with field colonies of Argentine ants resulted in L. humile retaining possession of baits. Additional evidence for the potential importance of colony- structure variation comes from the Argentine ants native range. At a site along the Rio de la Plata in Argentina, we found an inverse relationship between ant richness and density of L. humile (apparently a function of local differences in colony structure) in two different years of sampling.     

Diversity of plants in cocoa agroforests in the humid forest zone of Southern Cameroon

In the humid forest zone of Southern Cameroon, farmers generally associate cocoa with native and exotic trees in complex agroforestry systems. Despite the socio-economic and ecological importance of these systems, few studies have investigated their plant composition. We investigated tree composition of cocoa agroforests along a gradient of market access, population density and resource use intensity in the humid forest zone of southern Cameroon, comprising (i) the sub-region of Yaoundé, (ii) the sub-region of Mbalmayo, and (iii) the sub-region of Ebolowa. Market access, population density and resource use intensity all decreased from the first to the third sub-region. We quantified the diversity of tree species associated with cocoa within individual agroforests, among agroforests in the same region, and among the three sub-regions, and classified the tree species according to their main uses. A total of 9.1 ha belonging to 60 cocoa agroforests were inventoried in 12 villages. We encountered a total of 206 tree species with an average of 21 tree species per agroforest. In the more urbanized area around Yaoundé, agroforests were less diverse than in the other sub-regions. In all of the agroforests, food producing tree species tended to be more frequent than other species. Two thirds of the food trees were native forest species and one third was introduced. From Ebolowa to Yaoundé, the density of food producing trees doubled and the density of exotic food-producing species increased relative to native species. Some local species producing high-value non-timber forest products were found in the agroforests, but their density was far lower than that of exotic tree species. The agroforests also provide medicine, charcoal and other products for household consumption and sale. We conclude that unless there are specific efforts to promote local forest tree species in cocoa agroforests, these will progressively lose importance with increasing market access, population pressure and land use intensity.     

天然次生林和4种人工林树冠层蚂蚁功能多样性研究

为了探讨不同类型林地中树冠层蚂蚁功能多样性的变化,本研究采用树栖蚂蚁陷阱法调查云南省绿春县天然次生林和4种人工林的树冠层蚂蚁群落,并调查了植物多样性及植物垂直密度变化。测定54种蚂蚁的头长、头宽、胸长和后足腿节长,并计算和比较了不同类型样地间的功能丰富度、功能均匀度和功能离散度的差异。结果表明:(1)不同类型林地间树冠层蚂蚁的功能丰富度指数(FR_ic)有显著差异,紫胶林和紫胶林-玉米混农林显著高于桉树林、天然次生林和橡胶林,同时橡胶林显著高于桉树林;不同类型林地间树冠层蚂蚁的功能均匀度指数(FE_ve)有显著差异,天然次生林和紫胶林显著高于桉树林。不同类型林地间树冠层蚂蚁的功能离散度指数(FD_iv)有显著差异,桉树林、橡胶林和紫胶林显著高于紫胶林-玉米混农林,且橡胶林显著高于天然次生林。(2)树冠层蚂蚁功能均匀度随枯落物盖度的增加而升高;功能离散度随枯落物盖度、草本植物盖度和>300 cm处的垂直密度的增加而升高。不同林地类型中紫胶林的树冠层蚂蚁功能多样性相对较高,而这其中枯落物盖度、草本植物盖度和>300 cm处的垂直密度等环境因素起到一定积极的作用,因此对人工林进行合理的管护有利于生态系统功能的实现和保护。     

Large scale unicoloniality: the population and colony structure of the invasive Argentine ant (<Emphasis Type=Italic>Linepithema humile</Emphasis>) in New Zealand

The Argentine ant is native to South America and has spread widely across the globe. In this study, we use genetic analyses and behavioural assays to examine the colony structure of Argentine ants in New Zealand. Diet modification studies were also carried out in order to help identify what factors influence these behavioural assays. There was no aggression observed between any pairings tested across the North Island of New Zealand, though we found that diet manipulations in the laboratory could lead to low levels of aggression between previously amiable Argentine ant nests. The New Zealand population of Argentine ants was characterized by low levels of genetic variation in six microsatellite loci from their nuclear genome. Additionally, the population also lacked significant genetic structuring with no patterns of regional differentiation or isolation by distance. An analysis of molecular variation(AMOVA) found that themajority of genetic variation was present at a nest level (93% of total genetic variance), with little genetic differentiation observed within or between regions (3 – 4% of total genetic variance). No correlation between aggression and genetic relatedness was observed. This evidence suggests that Argentine ants in New Zealand effectively form a unicolonial population, which is likely the result of colonization from a single source population. As far as we know, this is the first country to have an entirely unicolonial population of Argentine ants. Received 21 February 2007; revised 20 May 2007; accepted 22 May 2007.     

Land use and forest habitat distribution in the hinterland of(r)a large city

The cumulative effect of many local forest disturbances can be estimated from an analysis of forest distribution at the scale of the entire landscape. To gauge the regional impact of forest clearance and regeneration, a history of forest cover was compiled for the twentieth century in the hinterland of a large city (Wilmington, Delaware, U.S.A.). Forest distribution and character were described by point sampling of historical aerial photographs. Environmental features were measured on visits to sample points in the field. Regional forest coverage has grown from c . 5% in 1890 to 22% in 1990. Most modern stands are <60 years old; only 2.5% of the modern landscape is in forest more than 100 years old. Since 1890, patterns of clearance and regeneration have caused a proportional shift in forest cover from uplands to lowlands and flood plains. Older stands are found on rock fields and steep slopes, indicating abandonment from agriculture according to the quality of local sites. Residential development has been concentrated in uplands, precluding regeneration of forest in that landscape position. In general, land use turnover reflects the character of the local site; there is no evidence of region-wide gradients of regeneration or clearance. Modern forest is concentrated along steep-sided stream valleys and away from roads. The great majority of forest lies within 50 m of a forest margin placing it in the microclimatic and vegetational edge zone. Although most forest is within 200 m of a residence, pedestrian traffic appears to have had only a minor impact in the biological community. By contrast, widespread species impoverish- ment is suggested by the overwhelming youthfulness of modern forest and the low degree of connectedness of forest within the landscape. Management for biological conservation should focus on protection of remnant primary forest, rather than relying on succession to restock secondary stands.     

Microsatellite diversity of the agriculturally important alpine grass Poa alpina in relation to land use and natural environment

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The Alpine Meadow Grass Poa alpina is common in subalpine and alpine natural sites and agriculturally used land, where it is an important fodder grass. Natural factors and human land use are supposed to have been shaping its genetic diversity for hundreds of years. The species comprises sexually and vegetatively reproducing plants. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of agricultural land use, environmental factors and the mode of reproduction on the distribution of its microsatellite diversity within and among populations and to analyse whether its genetic diversity is correlated with plant species diversity in grassland parcels. METHODS: Genetic diversity of P. alpina was assessed with five microsatellite markers for 569 plants originating from 20 natural sites and from 54 grassland parcels of different cultural tradition, land use and altitude in the Swiss Alps. Due to polyploidy and frequent aneuploidy of the species, data analyses were based on the presence of microsatellite bands. KEY RESULTS: A low but significant differentiation was found in microsatellite bands among natural sites and agriculturally used parcels, while their microsatellite band diversity within populations did not differ. An increased differentiation was found in microsatellite bands with increasing geographic distance among parcels, and a differentiation among grazed and mown parcels, and among sexually and vegetatively reproducing populations. Band richness of sampled plants per village was higher for villages where parcels represented more different land-use types. Within populations, microsatellite band diversity was higher in grazed than in mown parcels. CONCLUSIONS: The diversity of human land use in the Alps was associated with genetic diversity of P. alpina. Therefore, the ongoing socio-economically motivated land-use changes, which reduce the number of different land-use types, will affect the genetic diversity of P. alpina negatively.     

The significance of habitat continuity and current management on the compositional and functional diversity of grasslands in the uplands of Lower Saxony,Germany

There is a growing concern that land use intensification is having negative effects on semi-natural grasslands and that it leads to a general loss of biodiversity among all types of formerly extensively managed grasslands of poor to medium nutrient richness. Since the 1950s, many Central European uplands have been subject to an increase in grassland cover as a result of changes in land use practices. Using such a landscape in Lower Saxony, Germany, as a model region, we assessed environmental factors that control grassland diversity, including plant community composition, species richness and pollination trait composition. In 2007, 189 vegetation sampling sites were randomly distributed among grasslands covering some 394 ha within a 2500 ha study area. Plant communities were classified using TWINSPAN and the effects of environmental factors (soil, topography, current management and habitat continuity) were analysed by canonical correspondence analysis and regression analysis reducing for the effects of spatial autocorrelation by using principal coordinates of neighbour matrices.We found a wide range of six species-poor (<15 plant spp.) to extremely species-rich (>27 spp.) grassland types under mesic to dry site conditions, including sown, Cynosurion, Arrhenatherion and semi-natural grasslands. Grassland community composition was best explained by soil factors and species richness and pollination type composition by combined effects of current management and habitat continuity. During the 1950/60s, the extent of grassland area within the studied landscape rapidly increased to more than double its previous extent, and in 2007, grasslands comprised 16%. Natura 2000 grassland types comprised 1% of the surveyed site and medium-rich, high-nature-value grasslands a further 5%. While the number of wind-pollinated plant species was equal among all grassland types, there was a parallel decline in insect-pollinated plants and overall median species richness in the grassland communities along a gradient of increasing land use intensity (mowing, nutrient supply). Moreover, insect-pollinated plants occurring in intensively managed grasslands were found to additionally have the ability for self-pollination. Species-rich grasslands – including semi-natural grasslands and a semi-improved, species-rich Arrhenatherion community – occurred exclusively on old sites (with >100 years of habitat continuity) that had been used for traditional sheep grazing (environmental contracting). Medium-rich Arrhenatherion grasslands were established primarily on less productive, formerly arable fields (<30 years). We conclude that conservation efforts should focus on extant species-rich grassland types and should aim to implement traditional land use practices such as sheep grazing. Additional restoration efforts should focus on establishing new grasslands on less productive sites in the proximate surroundings of species-rich grasslands to facilitate seed dispersal, but nitrogen deposition should be buffered where appropriate. These measures would enhance the interaction between nature reserves and agricultural grasslands and thus improve the ecological quality of grasslands at the landscape scale.