Genetic Diversity and Structure of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) Ying in the Qinling Mountains,China

Sinopodophyllum hexandrum is an important medicinal plant whose genetic diversity must be conserved because it is endangered. The Qinling Mts. are a S. hexandrum distribution area that has unique environmental features that highly affect the evolution of the species. To provide the reference data for evolutionary and conservation studies, the genetic diversity and population structure of S. hexandrum in its overall natural distribution areas in the Qinling Mts. were investigated through inter-simple sequence repeats analysis of 32 natural populations. The 11 selected primers generated a total of 135 polymorphic bands. S. hexandrum genetic diversity was low within populations (average H_e = 0.0621), but higher at the species level (H_e = 0.1434). Clear structure and high genetic differentiation among populations were detected by using the unweighted pair group method for arithmetic averages, principle coordinate analysis and Bayesian clustering. The clustering approaches supported a division of the 32 populations into three major groups, for which analysis of molecular variance confirmed significant variation (63.27%) among populations. The genetic differentiation may have been attributed to the limited gene flow (N_m = 0.3587) in the species. Isolation by distance among populations was determined by comparing genetic distance versus geographic distance by using the Mantel test. Result was insignificant (r = 0.212, P = 0.287) at 0.05, showing that their spatial pattern and geographic locations are not correlated. Given the low within-population genetic diversity, high differentiation among populations and the increasing anthropogenic pressure on the species, in situ conservation measures were recommended to preserve S. hexandrum in Qinling Mts., and other populations must be sampled to retain as much genetic diversity of the species to achieve ex situ preservation as a supplement to in situ conservation.     

Genetic variation within the endangered mangrove species Sonneratia paracaseolaris (Sonneratiaceae) in China detected by inter-simple sequence repeats analysis

Sonneratia paracaseolaris, is a critically endangered mangrove species in China. Using inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers, we compared the genetic variation of introduced populations with that of natural populations to check whether the genetic diversity has been conserved. At the species level, genetic diversity was relatively high (P = 81.37%, He = 0.2241, and SI = 0.3501). Genetic variation in introduced populations (P = 75.78%, He = 0.2291, and SI = 0.3500) was more than that in natural populations (P = 70.81%, He = 0.1903, and SI = 0.2980). Based on Nei's G_ST value, more genetic differentiation among natural populations was detected (G_ST = 0.3591). Our data show that the genetic diversity of S. paracaseolaris was conserved in introduced populations to some extent, however, owing to the small natural populations and the threats they encountered, more plants should be planted to enlarge and restore the populations.     

Effect of Yangtze River on population genetic structure of the relict plant Parrotia subaequalis in eastern China

Parrotia subaequalis (Hamamelidaceae) is a Tertiary relic species endemic in eastern China. We used inter‐simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers to access genetic diversity and population genetic structure in natural five populations of P. subaequalis. The levels of genetic diversity were higher at species level (H = 0.2031) but lower at population level (H = 0.1096). The higher genetic diversity at species levels might be attributed to the accumulation of distinctive genotypes which adapted to the different habitats after Quaternary glaciations. Meanwhile, founder effects on the early stage, and subsequent bottleneck of population regeneration due to its biological characteristics, environmental features, and human activities, seemed to explain the low population levels of genetic diversity. The hierarchical AMOVA revealed high levels (42.60%) of among‐population genetic differentiation, which was in congruence with the high levels of Nei's genetic differentiation index (G_ST = 0.4629) and limited gene flow (N_m = 0.5801) among the studied populations. Mantel test showed a significant isolation‐by‐distance, indicating that geographic isolation has a significant effect on genetic structure in this species. Unweighted pair‐group method with arithmetic average clustering, PCoA, and Bayesian analyses uniformly recovered groups that matched the geographical distribution of this species. In particular, our results suggest that Yangtze River has served as a natural barrier to gene flow between populations occurred on both riversides. Concerning the management of P. subaequalis, the high genetic differentiation among populations indicates that preserving all five natural populations in situ and collecting enough individuals from these populations for ex situ conservation are necessary.     

Population structure and genetic diversity of Dysosma versipellis (Berberidaceae), a rare endemic from China

Dysosma versipellis (Berberidaceae) is an endangered and endemic species in China. To provide scientific foundation for formulating conservation strategies, we sampled six extant populations of this species and assessed the levels and patterns of genetic diversity using ISSR markers (11 primers). Of 144 bands detected 57.64% were polymorphic, but on average only 20.72% were polymorphic within populations. Our results revealed a low level of intraspecific genetic diversity (at population level: H_pop = 0.082, H_B = 0.177, SI = 0.1194; at species level: H_pop = 0.207, H_B = 0.378, SI = 0.3069). A high level of genetic differentiations among populations was detected based on Nei's genetic diversity analysis (60%), AMOVA analysis (65%), and Bayesian analysis (53%). The low levels of heterozygosity and high genetic differentiation observed in D. versipellis may be the consequence of low rate of natural recruitment, clonal growth, gene drift, and habitat fragmentation. Based on this, we suggest that in situ conservation be an important and practical measure for maintaining the genetic diversity of this species. Ex situ conservation should sample from different populations across the distribution range of the species to conserve high genetic diversity.     

Low genetic diversity and significant structuring in the endangered Mentha cervina populations and its implications for conservation

Eighteen populations of the endangered aromatic and medicinal plant Mentha cervina (Lamiaceae) were sampled across its natural range, in the western half of the Iberian Peninsula, and inter-simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) markers were used to assess genetic diversity and population structure. M. cervina populations exhibited a relatively low genetic diversity (percentage of polymorphic loci PPB = 14.2–58.3%, Nei's genetic diversity H_e = 0.135–0.205, Shannon's information index I = 0.08 − 0.33). However, the genetic diversity at species level was relatively high (PPB = 98.3%; H_e = 0.325; I = 0.23). The results of the analysis of molecular variance indicated very structured populations, with 50% of the variance within populations, 44% among populations and 6% between regions defined by hydrographic basins, in line with the gene differentiation coefficient (G_ST = 0.532). A Mantel test did not find significant correlation between genetic and geographic distance matrices (r = 0.064), indicating that isolation by distance is not shaping the present genetic structure. The levels and patterns of genetic diversity in M. cervina populations were assumed to result largely from a combination of evolutionary history and its unique biological traits, such as breeding system, low capacity of dispersion, small effective size and habitat fragmentation. The high genetic differentiation among populations indicates the necessity of conserving the maximum possible number of populations. The results also provide information to select sites for ex situ conservation. Optimal harvesting strategies, cultivation and tissue culture should also be developed as soon as possible to guarantee sustainable use of the species under study.     

Genetic diversity of the endangered Chinese endemic herb Dayaoshania cotinifolia (Gesneriaceae) revealed by simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers

Dayaoshania cotinifolia W.T. Wang is a critically endangered perennial herb endemic to southern China. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were employed to assess genetic diversity in two populations of D. cotinifolia. Eight primer pairs generated a total of 36 alleles, with a mean of 4.5 alleles per locus. The expected heterozygosity (H_e = 0.416) and observed heterozygosity (H_o = 0.508) indicated a moderate level of genetic diversity, though the genetic differentiation between the populations was low (F_st = 0.014), a result that was supported by a higher gene flow (N_m = 18.000). No severe bottleneck effect was detected in the two populations. Thus, the endangered status of this species is most likely due to anthropologic effects rather than a lack of genetic diversity. In situ conservation strategies should be promoted, and the sizes of the populations should be increased through artificial breeding.     

A molecular approach to understand the riddle of the invasive success of the tarantula,Brachypelma vagans,on Cozumel Island,Mexico

Invasive populations typically demonstrate genetic isolation which results in a loss of genetic diversity and a reduction in invasion success. This study focused on the genetic population of a successful invasive species of tarantula. Individuals were sampled in two mainland localities of the Yucatan Peninsula (Zoh-Laguna and Raudales), in addition to two island localities (El Cedral and Rancho Guadalupe on Cozumel Island). All populations present high genetic diversity (mean: H_e = 0.23, P = 99%), with significant differences between the Raudales and Rancho Guadalupe localities. The AMOVA analysis revealed a significant population structure (14.5% variation among populations), consistent with the gene differentiation coefficient (G_ST = 0.21), and spatial analysis of population structure. Our results suggested that the original introduced population did not suffer a loss of genetic diversity during establishment on the island, possibly a result of different biological conditions. Population structure analysis leads us to suggest that one island population is similar to the original genetic profile, whereas the genotypic profile of the other island population reflects recent introductions from the mainland. We identified a potential risk of extinction for one local mainland population, suggesting that this species may be a successful invader in a new environment but endangered in some parts of its natural area.     

Genetic variation and conservation assessment of Chinese populations of Magnolia cathcartii (Magnoliaceae), a rare evergreen tree from the South-Central China hotspot in the Eastern Himalayas

Nine natural populations of the rare evergreen tree Magnolia cathcartii (Magnoliaceae) were sampled across its natural range, and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers were used to assess genetic variation within and among populations. Three ex situ populations were also surveyed to determine whether conservation plantings include the entire genetic diversity of the species. Genetic diversity within the natural populations was very low (0.122 for Nei’s gene diversity), and the southeast populations had the highest diversity. The ex situ populations had a lower diversity than the mean diversity for all populations, and none of the ex situ populations reached the levels of diversity found in their source populations. Genetic differentiation was high among natural populations (G _st = 0.247), and an isolation-by-distance pattern was detected. Habitat fragmentation, restricted gene flow, and geitonogamy are proposed to be the primary reasons for the low genetic diversity and high genetic differentiation. More protection is needed, especially for the southeast populations, which possess the highest numbers of unique alleles according to AFLP fragment analyses. The ex situ program was a good first step towards preserving this species, but the current ex situ populations preserve only a limited portion of its genetic diversity. Future ex situ efforts should focus on enhancing the plantings with individuals from southeastern Yunnan.     

Genetic,Epigenetic, and HPLC Fingerprint Differentiation between Natural and Ex Situ Populations of Rhodiola sachalinensis from Changbai Mountain,China

Rhodiola sachalinensis is an endangered species with important medicinal value. We used inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) markers to analyze genetic and epigenetic differentiation in different populations of R. sachalinensis, including three natural populations and an ex situ population. Chromatographic fingerprint was used to reveal HPLC fingerprint differentiation. According to our results, the ex situ population of R. sachalinensis has higher level genetic diversity and greater HPLC fingerprint variation than natural populations, but shows lower epigenetic diversity. Most genetic variation (54.88%) was found to be distributed within populations, and epigenetic variation was primarily distributed among populations (63.87%). UPGMA cluster analysis of ISSR and MSAP data showed identical results, with individuals from each given population grouping together. The results of UPGMA cluster analysis of HPLC fingerprint patterns was significantly different from results obtained from ISSR and MSAP data. Correlation analysis revealed close relationships among altitude, genetic structure, epigenetic structure, and HPLC fingerprint patterns (R² = 0.98 for genetic and epigenetic distance; R² = 0.90 for DNA methylation level and altitude; R² = –0.95 for HPLC fingerprint and altitude). Taken together, our results indicate that ex situ population of R. sachalinensis show significantly different genetic and epigenetic population structures and HPLC fingerprint patterns. Along with other potential explanations, these findings suggest that the ex situ environmental factors caused by different altitude play an important role in keeping hereditary characteristic of R. sachalinensis.     

Genetic diversity of the endangered Chinese endemic plant Monimopetalum chinense revealed by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP)

Monimopetalum chinense Rehd. is an endangered woody vine endemic to eastern China. Using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers, we examined levels of genetic variation within and among eleven populations located across the species’ distribution. Although modest levels of heterozygosity were detected, other measures of genetic diversity registered relatively high levels of variability, both at the species level (P = 91.0%, H_E = 0.232, I_S = 0.365) and at the population level (P = 53.0%, H_E = 0.155, I_S = 0.239). Populations also exhibited high levels of genetic differentiation (Nei’s genetic diversity analysis, G_ST = 0.330), corresponding to isolation-by-distance and hierarchical population structure. These results indicate that, despite low levels of gene flow, populations of M. chinense still harbor substantial amounts of genetic diversity. Management plans for the species should include measures that ensure genetic diversity remains high within and among extant populations.     

Genetic diversity of Lilium tsingtauense in China and Korea revealed by ISSR markers and morphological characters

To study the genetic diversity and population structure of Lilium tsingtauense Gilg (Qingdao Lily), we collected 648 samples from 12 sites in China and Korea, and analyzed their Inter-Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) molecular markers and morphological characters. ISSR data revealed a relatively high genetic diversity at the species level, with 72.31% polymorphic loci, effective numbers of alleles of 1.437, average expected heterozygosity of 0.231 and Shannon’s information index of 0.369. Considerable genetic differentiation among the natural populations (G_ST = 0.144) and the gene flow (N_m = 1.487) were detected. AMOVA analysis and UPGMA-dendrogram suggested a hierarchical regional structure among populations, and spatial autocorrelation analysis showed a micro-scaled spatial structure. Furthermore, there was a high correlation between morphological characters and genetic parameters obtained from ISSR parameters. There was only a low genetic differentiation among the different morphological types of L. tsingtauence in China. Based on these findings, we recommend in situ and ex situ conservation strategies for the preservation of L. tsingtauense.     

Genetic variation and conservation of the endangered Chinese endemic herb Dendrobium officinale based on SRAP analysis

Dendrobium officinale (Orchidaceae) is used for traditional medicine and is critically endangered in China. To investigate the genetic structure of this species and to offer some advice on conservation strategies, 84 individuals from nine wild populations of D. officinale were analyzed using the method of sequence-related amplified polymorphism. A high level of genetic diversity was detected (PPB = 88.07%, H _E = 0.2880) at the species level. However, the genetic diversity at the population level was lower (PPB = 51.68%, H _E = 0.1878) in comparison with other species with similar life history characteristics. Based on analysis of molecular variation, there was moderate variation between pairs of populations with Φ _ST values ranging from 0.1327 to 0.4151 and on average 27.05% of the genetic variation occurred among populations. Two main clusters were shown in UPGMA using TFPGA, which is consistent with the result of principal coordinate analysis using NTSYS. In situ conservation is the first advocated and and ex situ should be proposed at the same time to protect the endangered plant and to preserve germplasm resources.     

High genetic diversity but limited gene flow among remnant and fragmented natural populations of Liriodendron chinense Sarg

As a relic species, Liriodendron chinense is now recognized as an endangered species. To better understand the genetic structure and differentiation among remnant populations of L. chinense, we determined the genotypes of 14 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) loci across 318 individuals from 12 natural populations and 750 seedlings from five offspring populations. We found that L. chinense maintained high genetic diversity (H_e = 0.7385) within populations but moderate genetic differentiation (F_st = 0.1956) and low gene flow (N_m = 1.0283) between populations. The genetic diversity was slightly lower for offspring populations than for their corresponding natural populations. Moreover, using a two-phased model of mutation (TPM), we demonstrated that significant bottlenecks had occurred in six populations. A Mantel test revealed a statistically significant correlation between the geographic distances and genetic distances between populations (r = 0.5011, P = 0.002). Hence, we presume that geographical isolation and habitat fragmentation might contribute jointly to current population structure of L. chinense. We suggest that populations from southern Yunnan can be regarded as a variety of L. chinense, given their large deviation from other populations. Our findings may be of value for the conservation and use of L. chinense.     

Genetic diversity and population structure of endangered endemic Paeonia jishanensis in China and conservation implications

Paeonia jishanensis, one of the most important ancestral species of cultivated tree peonies, is an endangered ornamental and medicinal plant endemic to China. A total of 236 individuals of P. jishanensis from 10 extant populations were analysed using 21 EST-SSR markers to assess their genetic diversity and population structure. Moderate genetic diversity levels (H_E = 0.340) and high genetic differentiation among populations (F_ST = 0.335) were revealed. Combining the results of STRUCTURE, PCoA and neighbour-joining analyses, the 10 populations were divided into four genetic groups that were significantly related to their geographical origins, which was further supported by hierarchical AMOVA showing the highest variation of 17.9% among groups. The Mantel test showed a significant positive correlation between genetic distance and geographic distance among populations (r = 0.873, P < 0.0001). The genetic structure of P. jishanensis may be due to limited gene flow hindered by vicariance and its breeding system: facultative vegetative reproduction. This study carries significant implications for the conservation and utilization of this endangered species.     

AFLP and ISSR analysis reveals high genetic variation and inter-population differentiation in fragmented populations of the endangered Litsea szemaois (Lauraceae) from Southwest China

Litsea szemaois (Lauraceae) is an endemic and endangered species from the tropical rain forests of Xishuangbanna, southern Yunnan, SW China, but habitat fragmentation, especially exacerbated by rubber planting, has caused a decline in population size of the species. AFLP and ISSR were used to investigate the genetic diversity and population structure of eight populations from across its known distribution. Three AFLP and ten ISSR primer combinations produced a total of 203 and 77 unambiguous and repeatable bands respectively, of which 164 (80.8%) and 67 (87.0%) were polymorphic for the two markers. These two markers showed that Litsea szemaois exhibits comparatively high genetic diversity at species level (heterozygosity (hs) = 0.2109) relative to some other Lauraceae. Most of the genetic variation was partitioned within populations, but genetic differentiation between populations was significant and relatively high (Φ _st = 0.2420, θ^B = 0.1986) compared with other tropical plants. The genetic characteristics of L. szemaois may be related to its outbreeding system, insect pollination and fragmented distribution. Because L. szemaois is dioecious and slow to mature, ex situ conservation across its genetic diversity is unlikely to succeed, although seedlings grow well under cultivation. Thus, in situ conservation is very important for this endangered species, especially as only 133 adult individuals are known in the wild. In particular, the Nabanhe and Mandian populations should be given a high conservation priority due to their higher genetic diversity, larger population size and better field condition, but wider sampling is required across all populations to determine additional areas with significant genetic conservation value.     

Conservation genetics of the annual hemiparasitic plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Melampyrum sylvaticum</Emphasis> (Orobanchaceae) in the UK and Scandinavia

Melampyrum sylvaticum is an endangered annual hemiparasitic plant that is found in only 19 small and isolated populations in the United Kingdom (UK). To evaluate the genetic consequences of this patchy distribution we compared levels of diversity, inbreeding and differentiation from ten populations from the UK with eight relatively large populations from Sweden and Norway where the species is more continuously distributed. We demonstrate that in both the UK and Scandinavia, the species is highly inbreeding (global F _IS = 0.899). Levels of population differentiation were high (F’_ST = 0.892) and significantly higher amongst UK populations (F’_ST = 0.949) than Scandinavian populations (F’_ST = 0.762; P < 0.01). The isolated populations in the UK have, on average, lower genetic diversity (allelic richness, proportion of loci that are polymorphic, gene diversity) than Scandinavian populations, and this diversity difference is associated with the smaller census size and population area of UK populations. From a conservation perspective, the naturally inbreeding nature of the species may buffer the species against immediate effects of inbreeding depression, but the markedly lower levels of genetic diversity in UK populations may represent a genetic constraint to evolutionary change. In addition, the high levels of population differentiation suggest that gene flow among populations will not be effective at replenishing lost variation. We thus recommend supporting in situ conservation management with ex situ populations and human-mediated seed dispersal among selected populations in the UK.     

Genetic diversity within and among populations of the endangered and endemic species Primula merrilliana in China

Primula merrilliana Schltr. is an endangered and narrowly-distributed endemic species of southern Anhui Province in China. In this study, the level of genetic variation and the pattern of genetic structure in six natural populations of P. merrilliana were assessed by using ISSR (inter-simple sequence repeats) markers. Based on ten primers, 137 clear and reproducible DNA fragments were generated, of which 109 were polymorphic. The statistical results indicated that there was a relatively low genetic diversity within populations, and a high genetic differentiation among populations (G_ST = 0.53, Φ_ST = 0.49). The level of population genetic diversity was correlated to habitat type and the gene flow (N_m) was low with only 0.45. The unexpected genetic structure of P. merrilliana may be explained by limited gene flow that was caused by habitat fragmentation and limited seeds and pollen dispersal ability, self-compatible breeding system and biennial life form.     

Conservation genetics of Butte County meadowfoam (Limnanthes floccosa ssp. californica Arroyo), an endangered vernal pool endemic

The endangered annual plant Limnanthes floccosa ssp. californica Arroyo is restricted to vernal pools in Butte County, California. To identify populations with unique genetic resources, guide reintroduction efforts, and design seed collection scenarios for long-term ex situ seed storage we determined extant genetic diversity and structure by surveying 457 individuals from 21 distinct populations using nine polymorphic microsatellite markers. We found low within population genetic diversity: low allelic diversity (1.9 [0.06 SE] alleles/locus); low heterozygosity (H _obs = 0.10 ± 0.018, H _exp = 0.19 ± 0.015), and a high fixation index (0.556 ± 0.044). The number of polymorphic loci ranged between 11 and 89%. Bayesian ordination determined 20 distinct populations and we found high genetic structure among these (F _st = 0.65, P < 0.0001). We identified notable gene flow barriers across populations, confirming regional structuring between three previously defined population density centers and two outlying populations (F _st = 0.21, P < 0.0001). Population size estimates ranged between ~50 and >5,000 extant plants per site. Our study confirms previous isozyme-based results and suggests that the loss of any population would represent a significant loss in the species’ genetic diversity. Recovery requires active restoration of existing populations and permanent habitat protection. We recommend close comparison of microhabitats of declining populations with genetically similar populations, to determine the potential for human assisted gene flow via seed movement to recover declining populations.     

Genetic Evaluation of the Efficacy of In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Parashorea chinensis</Emphasis> (Dipterocarpaceae) in Southwestern China

The majority of research in genetic diversity yields recommendations rather than actual conservation achievements. We assessed the efficacy of actual in situ and ex situ efforts to conserve Parashorea chinensis (Dipterocarpaceae) against the background of the geographic pattern of genetic variation of this species. Samples from seven natural populations, including three in a nature reserve, and one ex situ conservation population were studied. Across the natural populations, 47.8% of RAPD loci were polymorphic; only 20.8% on average varied at the population level. Mean population genetic diversity was 0.787 within natural populations and 1.410 for the whole species. Significant genetic differentiation among regions and isolation by distance were present on larger scales (among regions). AMOVA revealed that the majority of the among-population variation occurred among regions rather than among populations within regions. Regression analysis, Mantel test, principal coordinates analysis, and cluster analysis consistently demonstrated increasing genetic isolation with increasing geographic distance. Genetic differentiation within the region was quite low compared to that among regions. Multilocus spatial autocorrelation analysis of these three populations revealed random distribution of genetic variation in two populations, but genetic clustering was detected in the third population. The ex situ conserved population contained a medium level of genetic variation compared with the seven natural populations; it contained 77.1% of the total genetic variation of this species and 91% of the moderate to high frequency RAPD fragments (f > 0.05). Exclusive bands were detected in natural populations, but none were found in the ex situ conserved population. The populations protected in the nature reserve contained most of the genetic variation of the whole species, with 81.4% of the total genetic variation and 95.7% of the fragments with moderate to high frequency (f > 0.05) of this species conserved. The results show that the ex situ conserved population does not contain enough genetic variation to meet the need of release in the future, and that more extensive ex situ sampling in natural populations TY, NP, HK, and MG is needed. The in situ conserved population contains representative genetic variation to maintain long-term survival and evolutionary processes of P. chinensis.     

Comparative molecular studies on the genetic diversity of an ex situ garden collection and its source population of the critically endangered polish endemic plant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cochlearia polonica</Emphasis> E. Fröhlich

Cochlearia polonica (Brassicaceae) is a narrow endemic plant extinct in the wild, known only from one transplanted population in southern Poland. The suitable habitats for this species are confined to shallow water courses and springs on sandy ground. During the second half of twentieth century the natural populations of C. polonica declined due to anthropogenic effects (primarily due to a major change of ground water levels). Consequently, 14 individuals were transplanted in the 1970 s into a secondary locality of similar habitat conditions of Centuria river. In the late 1980s five individuals from the transplanted population were used to establish an artificial ex situ site in the Botanical Garden of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. In order to investigate the effect of 18 years of ex situ conservation, the level of genetic diversity and genetic structure of the ex situ conserved botanical garden population and its source population were sampled and analyzed using inter simple sequence repeat markers. The percentage values of polymorphic bands and Nei’s gene diversity indicated average genetic variation at species level, whereas at the population level it was relatively low, especially for the garden population. The results suggested differences in genetic composition of the analyzed populations and implied homogenization of the genetic structure of the ex situ conserved population. Ex situ conservation resulted in a decrease of the species’ genetic diversity, implying that the artificial population only partly represents the primary genetic variability found in the source population.