Evidence of intraspecific agonistic interactions in Smilodon populator (Carnivora,Felidae)

The saber-toothed cat Smilodon is a characteristic genus of the Pleistocene faunas of the American continent. Smilodon belongs to an extinct clade of felids that had hypertrophied blade-like upper canines. Because the length of the canines is so extreme, the killing bite of Smilodon is a hotly debated topic in vertebrate paleontology. Some authors have proposed that saber-toothed cats had a weak bite and their canines were fragile, not useful for attacking prey or penetrating bones. The aim of the present contribution is to describe two new specimens of Smilodon populator that have injuries on their skulls. Although it cannot be ruled out that the injuries were caused by a potential prey kicking the skull, the size, shape and general features of the injuries suggest that they were inflicted by the upper canines of another Smilodon individual during agonistic interactions.     

Distribution and human‐caused mortality of Persian leopards Panthera pardus saxicolor in Iran,based on unpublished data and Farsi gray literature

Gray literature and data from unpublished sources can provide important scientific information that has not been published scientifically. The Persian leopard (hereafter leopard) Panthera pardus saxicolor is classed as endangered on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and also is one of the least‐studied subspecies of leopard. It occurs in the Caucasus and Central and Southwest Asia. Iran contains more than 75% of the leopard's extant range, and the leopard population in this country serves as a source for neighboring countries. In this study, we determined the distribution and human‐caused mortality of leopards in Iran, by reviewing unpublished data and Farsi gray literature (which includes government reports) between 1 January 2010 and 30 December 2018. We created the most recent distribution map of the leopard in Iran. Our data display that human‐caused mortality of leopard in Iran mostly includes poaching and intentional poisoning, and roadkill.     

Who's behind that mask and cape? The Asian leopard cat's Agouti (ASIP) allele likely affects coat colour phenotype in the Bengal cat breed

Coat colours and patterns are highly variable in cats and are determined mainly by several genes with Mendelian inheritance. A 2‐bp deletion in agouti signalling protein (ASIP) is associated with melanism in domestic cats. Bengal cats are hybrids between domestic cats and Asian leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis), and the charcoal coat colouration/pattern in Bengals presents as a possible incomplete melanism. The complete coding region of ASIP was directly sequenced in Asian leopard, domestic and Bengal cats. Twenty‐seven variants were identified between domestic and leopard cats and were investigated in Bengals and Savannahs, a hybrid with servals (Leptailurus serval). The leopard cat ASIP haplotype was distinguished from domestic cat by four synonymous and four non‐synonymous exonic SNPs, as well as 19 intronic variants, including a 42‐bp deletion in intron 4. Fifty‐six of 64 reported charcoal cats were compound heterozygotes at ASIP, with leopard cat agouti (A^Pbe) and domestic cat non‐agouti (a) haplotypes. Twenty‐four Bengals had an additional unique haplotype (A2) for exon 2 that was not identified in leopard cats, servals or jungle cats (Felis chaus). The compound heterozygote state suggests the leopard cat allele, in combination with the recessive non‐agouti allele, influences Bengal markings, producing a darker, yet not completely melanistic coat. This is the first validation of a leopard cat allele segregating in the Bengal breed and likely affecting their overall pelage phenotype. Genetic testing services need to be aware of the possible segregation of wild felid alleles in all assays performed on hybrid cats.     

泰国Khao Yai国家公园豹猫和云豹的生态和保护

于1997年10月到1999年10月在泰国KhaoYai国家公园对两种同域分布的物种（即豹猫和云豹）进行了研究。使用带诱饵的陷阱捕捉了这些动物,进行麻醉,确定了性别、年龄,并戴上了无线电项圈,对6只雌性豹猫和4只雄性豹猫进行了1—18个月的无线电追踪。豹猫在干旱季节的利用区域大于雨季,雄性利用的区域大于雌性。在夜间和晨昏时节,豹猫活动增加,但是并没有节律性活动。所有豹猫个体在旱季和雨季的活动都相似,但雄性个体的白天活动多于雌性。豹猫的行走距离有性别差异但是没有季节差异;其食物以鼠类为主。分别对1只雌性云豹和1只雄性云豹进行了17个月和7个月的无线电追踪,雌性个体的活动面积为39．4km^2,而雄性个体活动面积为42．2km^2,核心区都是2．9km2。云豹对半绿林的使用大于其它类型的植被,在晨昏和夜间的活动增加,其活动无节律。     

Evolutionary convergence of primitive sabertooth craniomandibular morphology: the clouded leopard (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Neofelis nebulosa</Emphasis>) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Paramachairodus ogygia</Emphasis> compared

The sabertoothed felids were among the most unusual predators in the late Tertiary ecosystems, and the sabertooth morphology is regarded as being absent from the modern ecosystems. In recent years, the primitive Paramachairodus has become well known and has yielded much valuable information on the primitive skull morphology among sabercats, providing the first evidence-based scenarios for the evolution of skull morphology in later sabercats. However, comparison of craniomandibular morphology of the extant clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa and Paramachairodus reveals numerous similarities and subsequent divergence from other extant great cats. In several key aspects, the clouded leopard has approached a primitive sabercat craniomandibular morphology and has diverged markedly from its sister group, the Panthera lineage. A primitive sabertooth condition arose six times in the Tertiary period, not five as is traditionally advocated. The clouded leopard appears to be a useful model for understanding primitive sabercat morphology and could shed important light on sabercat evolution. The unusual nature of the clouded leopard implies that increased efforts should be spent on insuring the continuing survival of this rare and endangered species. Electronic Supplementary Material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Feeding behaviour and bite force of sabretoothed predators

The feeding behaviour of extinct sabretoothed predators (machaeroidines, nimravids, barbourofelids, machairodonts and thylacosmilines) is investigated using beam theory. Because bite force applied along the mandible should be proportional to the external dimension of the mandibular corpus, patterns of variation in these dimensions at interdental gaps will reflect the adaptation of the jaw to specific loads, related to killing methods. Comparison of the mandibular force profiles of sabretooths to those of extant conical‐toothed carnivorans of known feeding behaviour reveals that sabretooths had a powerful bite, as strong or stronger than extant felids of similar mandibular length. Loads exerted at the lower canine were better constrained in the sagittal plane than in extant conical‐toothed carnivorans, indicating that prey was efficiently restrained when the sabre bite was delivered. The mandibular symphysis is generally better buttressed dorsoventrally in dirk‐toothed sabretooths than in scimitar‐toothed sabretooths, implying different killing strategies for the two ecomorphs: dirktooths delivered powerful sabre bites on prey they restrained with their forelimbs, while scimitartooths delivered slashing sabre bites and may have used their incisor battery to subdue their prey. The mandibular symphysis of Smilodon fatalis is less buttressed dorsoventrally than that of other dirk‐toothed sabretooths, possibly as a consequence of the greater torsional stresses induced while feeding rapidly on carcasses in response to intense competition. The mandibular symphysis of Thylacosmilus atrox is better buttressed dorsoventrally in juveniles than in adults, suggesting that young marsupial sabretooths underwent an extended period of parental care as typically observed in modern felids and inferred for eutherian sabretooths. Finally, machaeroidines and the nimravid Nimravus brachyops are exceptional in exhibiting a degree of dorsoventral buttressing of the mandibular symphysis that is intermediate between advanced sabretooths and conical‐toothed felids but similar to the extant Neofelis nebulosa, suggesting that the latter taxon may be close to the ancestral condition of a new sabretooth radiation. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 145 , 393–426.     

Three terrestrial Pleistocene coucals (Centropus: Cuculidae) from southern Australia: biogeographical and ecological significance

Coucals are large, predatory, primarily ground‐dwelling cuckoos of the genus Centropus, with 26 extant species ranging from Africa to Australia. Their evolutionary and biogeographical history are poorly understood and their fossil record almost non‐existent. Only one species (Centropus phasianinus) currently inhabits Australia, but there is now fossil evidence for at least three Pleistocene species. One of these (Centropus colossus) was described from south‐eastern Australia in 1985. Here we describe additional elements of this species from the same site, and remains of two further extinct species from the Thylacoleo Caves of the Nullarbor Plain, south‐central Australia. The skeletal morphology and large size of the three extinct species indicates that they had reduced capacity for flight and were probably primarily ground‐dwelling. The extinct species include the two largest‐known cuckoos, weighing upwards of 1 kg each. They demonstrate that gigantism in this lineage has been more marked in a continental context than on islands, contrary to the impression gained from extant species. The evolutionary relationships of the Australian fossil coucals are uncertain, but our phylogenetic analysis indicates a possible close relationship between one of the Nullarbor species and extant Centropus violaceus from the Bismarck Archipelago. The presence of three coucals in southern Australia markedly extends the geographical range of the genus from tropical Australia into southern temperate regions. This demonstrates the remarkable and consistent ability of coucals to colonize continents despite their very limited flying ability.     

Not another type of potato: MC1R and the russet coloration of Burmese cats

The Burmese is a breed of domestic cat that originated in Southeast Asia and was further developed in the United States. Variants in melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) causes common coat colour phenotypes in a variety of mammalian species but only limited colour variation in the domestic cat. Known as the extension (E) locus, melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) interacts with the agouti locus to produce the eumelanin and pheomelanin pigments. Recently, a novel reddish coloration, which is termed russet, was identified in the Burmese cat breed. Because this russet Burmese coloration changes with aging, MC1R was suggested as candidate gene. The similar colouration in specific lineages of Norwegian Forest cat known as amber (e) (c.250G>A; p.Asp84Asn) was excluded for this Burmese phenotype. The complete 954‐bp coding region of MC1R was directly sequenced in russet Burmese and suspected carriers. A 3‐bp deletion (c.439_441del) associated with the deletion of a phenyalanine (p.Phe146del) in the protein sequence was identified. All russet coloured cats were homozygous for the variant, and all obligate carriers were heterozygous, confirming that the deletion segregated concordantly with colouring in Burmese cats from the New Zealand foundation lineage. The variant was not identified in 442 cats from 26 different breeds and random‐bred cats. Twenty‐six Burmese from the USA did not have the variant. This MC1R variant defines a unique coloration and the second breed‐specific MC1R variant in cats. The interactions of the two recessive feline MC1R alleles (E  >  e, e^r) is unknown.     

In the shadows of snow leopards and the Himalayas: density and habitat selection of blue sheep in Manang,Nepal

There is a growing agreement that conservation needs to be proactive and pay increased attention to common species and to the threats they face. The blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) plays a key ecological role in sensitive high‐altitude ecosystems of Central Asia and is among the main prey species for the globally vulnerable snow leopard (Panthera uncia). As the blue sheep has been increasingly exposed to human pressures, it is vital to estimate its population dynamics, protect the key populations, identify important habitats, and secure a balance between conservation and local livelihoods. We conducted a study in Manang, Annapurna Conservation Area (Nepal), to survey blue sheep on 60 transects in spring (127.9 km) and 61 transects in autumn (134.7 km) of 2019, estimate their minimum densities from total counts, compare these densities with previous estimates, and assess blue sheep habitat selection by the application of generalized additive models (GAMs). Total counts yielded minimum density estimates of 6.0–7.7 and 6.9–7.8 individuals/km² in spring and autumn, respectively, which are relatively high compared to other areas. Elevation and, to a lesser extent, land cover indicated by the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) strongly affected habitat selection by blue sheep, whereas the effects of anthropogenic variables were insignificant. Animals were found mainly in habitats associated with grasslands and shrublands at elevations between 4,200 and 4,700 m. We show that the blue sheep population size in Manang has been largely maintained over the past three decades, indicating the success of the integrated conservation and development efforts in this area. Considering a strong dependence of snow leopards on blue sheep, these findings give hope for the long‐term conservation of this big cat in Manang. We suggest that long‐term population monitoring and a better understanding of blue sheep–livestock interactions are crucial to maintain healthy populations of blue sheep and, as a consequence, of snow leopards.     

Dental anomalies within extant members of the mammalian Order Pilosa

Recent discovery of a supernumerary dental anomaly in two‐toed sloths led to an extensive review of extant sloth specimens to look for additional anomalies. In total, 881 museum specimens were examined. These revealed two primary types of anomalies, hyperdontia (extra teeth) and anodontia (loss of teeth), occurring at a rate of 2.4% (n = 21). Two‐toed sloths, Choloepus, were more likely to have hyperdontia in the anterior dentition, whereas three‐toed sloths, Bradypus, experienced anodontia more frequently with the upper caniniforms. Both genera experienced both anomalies. The majority affected the upper dentition, with only three specimens exhibiting mandibular anomalies. Beyond the patterns of tooth positioning, all anomalies were random with respect to age, sex and geography. A few specimens not counted in the initial assessment expressed incomplete anodontia, indicating that the loss occurred postnatally and was not an embryological anomaly. For Bradypus, the findings provide new support for the hypothesis that the taxon represents a neotenic lineage and opens new possibilities about its relationship to the extinct ground sloths with a suggested rooting above that of the basal position it typically occupies for Folivora.     

Gene flow and population structure of a solitary top carnivore in a human‐dominated landscape

While African leopard populations are considered to be continuous as demonstrated by their high genetic variation, the southernmost leopard population exists in the Eastern and Western Cape, South Africa, where anthropogenic activities may be affecting this population's structure. Little is known about the elusive, last free‐roaming top predator in the region and this study is the first to report on leopard population structuring using nuclear DNA. By analyzing 14 microsatellite markers from 40 leopard tissue samples, we aimed to understand the populations' structure, genetic distance, and gene flow (Nm). Our results, based on spatially explicit analysis with Bayesian methods, indicate that leopards in the region exist in a fragmented population structure with lower than expected genetic diversity. Three population groups were identified, between which low to moderate levels of gene flow were observed (Nm 0.5 to 3.6). One subpopulation exhibited low genetic differentiation, suggesting a continuous population structure, while the remaining two appear to be less connected, with low emigration and immigration between these populations. Therefore, genetic barriers are present between the subpopulations, and while leopards in the study region may function as a metapopulation, anthropogenic activities threaten to decrease habitat and movement further. Our results indicate that the leopard population may become isolated within a few generations and suggest that management actions should aim to increase habitat connectivity and reduce human–carnivore conflict. Understanding genetic diversity and connectivity of populations has important conservation implications that can highlight management of priority populations to reverse the effects of human‐caused extinctions.     

Calibrating a camera trap–based biased mark–recapture sampling design to survey the leopard population in the N'wanetsi concession,Kruger National Park,South Africa

Estimating large carnivore abundance can be challenging. A biased leopard (Panthera pardus) population survey was conducted in the N'wanetsi concession in the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, using motion‐sensitive camera traps from April to August 2008. Survey effort included 88 trapping occasions and 586 trap days. The survey yielded 24 leopard photographs, comprising fourteen adults of eleven males and three females. The capture rate was determined to be 24.4 trap days per leopard. Estimates of population abundance stabilized at approximately 500 trap days. Precision of population estimates began to stabilize after 378 trap days. We estimated that there were nineteen leopards in an area of 150 km². Leopard density was estimated at 12.7 leopards per 100 km². We explore the possibility of employing the methods used in this study to survey the leopard population in the KNP and surrounding areas.     

Introduced cats Felis catus eating a continental fauna: inventory and traits of Australian mammal species killed

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A MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY OF THE FELIDAE: IMMUNOLOGICAL DISTANCE

The phylogenetic distances between 34 of the 37 extant species of Felidae were estimated using albumin immunological distances (AID). Albumins from ten cat species were used to prepare antisera in rabbits. A consensus phylogeny was constructed from a matrix of reciprocal AID measurements using four distinct phylogenetic algorithms. A series of one-way measurements using the ten index antisera and those 24 species for which albumins were available (but antisera were not), permitted addition of these “species' limbs” to the previously derived phylogenetic trees. The major conclusions of the derived topology were: 1) the earliest branch of the feline radiation occurred approximately 12 million years B.P. and led to the small South American cats (ocelot, margay, Geoffroy's cat, etc.); 2) the second branching occurred 8-10 million years B.P. and included the close relatives of the domestic cat (wildcats, jungle cat, sand cat, and black-footed cat) plus Pallas's cat; 3) the third lineage which began to radiate 4-6 million years B.P. was the pantherine lineage, which included several early branches (cheetah, serval, clouded leopard, golden cats, and puma) and a very recent (2 million years B.P.) split between the lynxes and the modern great cats (Panthera). The topology of the Felidae derived from albumin immunological distance is highly consistent with the karyological disposition of these species, as well as with the fossil record of this family. Because of the recent divergence of this group, the presented data set and the derived topology contain certain unresolved phylogenetic relationships which are so indicated.     

Molecular evidence for species-level distinctions in clouded leopards

Among the 37 living species of Felidae, the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is generally classified as a monotypic genus basal to the Panthera lineage of great cats. This secretive, mid-sized (16-23 kg) carnivore, now severely endangered, is traditionally subdivided into four southeast Asian subspecies (Figure 1A). We used molecular genetic methods to re-evaluate subspecies partitions and to quantify patterns of population genetic variation among 109 clouded leopards of known geographic origin (Figure 1A, Tables S1 ans S2 in the Supplemental Data available online). We found strong phylogeographic monophyly and large genetic distances between N. n. nebulosa (mainland) and N. n. diardi (Borneo; n = 3 individuals) with mtDNA (771 bp), nuclear DNA (3100 bp), and 51 microsatellite loci. Thirty-six fixed mitochondrial and nuclear nucleotide differences and 20 microsatellite loci with nonoverlapping allele-size ranges distinguished N. n. nebulosa from N. n. diardi. Along with fixed subspecies-specific chromosomal differences, this degree of differentiation is equivalent to, or greater than, comparable measures among five recognized Panthera species (lion, tiger, leopard, jaguar, and snow leopard). These distinctions increase the urgency of clouded leopard conservation efforts, and if affirmed by morphological analysis and wider sampling of N. n. diardi in Borneo and Sumatra, would support reclassification of N. n. diardi as a new species (Neofelis diardi).     

Genetic variation in Sri Lankan leopards

Electrophoretic variation of 50 gene-enzyme systems was typed in a population of 33 captive leopards (Panthera pardus) from the island of Sri Lanka. The captive leopard population was composed of several lineages: (1) wild-caught leopards of the island subspecies (P. p. kotiya), (2) captive-born animals of the same subspecies, (3) a melanistic lineage whose founders were obtained from Malaysia (P. p. delacouri), and (4) leopards of known mixed lineage and unknown status. Two loci, APRT and PGD, were polymorphic in all samples, whereas 48 loci were invariant. Percent polymorphism (P) and percent average heterozygosity (H) were calculated as 4% and 1.4%, respectively, for the wild-caught leopards; 4% and 1.2% for the captive-born kotiya leopards; and 4% and 2.0% for the melanistic lineage. The overall results revealed a detectable decrease in genetic variability compared with a previous study of captive leopards from mainland origins. The mainland leopards had three additional polymorphic loci, ADA, ESI, and HBB. Reexamination of the TF locus using a revised protocol resolved a new allele in the sample of mainland leopards but not in the Sri Lankan sample. With this new polymorphism, recalculated P and H values for the mainland sample are 10% and 3.1%, respectively. No significant differences in polymorphic loci were observed between the leopard subspecies examined.     

Human‐mediated dispersals do not explain tortoise distribution on the Indian Ocean's islands

Origins of giant tortoises on the Indian Ocean's islands have been debated, and most recently attributed to human translocation (see Wilmé, Patrick, & Ganzhorn, 2017). To resolve the issue, we analyse all available molecular sequences from extinct and extant Indian Ocean's giant tortoises, along with major clades of the family Testudinidae using phylogenetic methods, Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood, and a relaxed time calibration approach. Our results most strongly support giant tortoises of the genus Cylindraspis evolving in situ in the Mascarene Islands since the early mid‐Miocence, and Aldabra tortoises diverging from a Madagascan lineage in the early Oligocene. The geologic time‐scale of these speciation events and the resulting island endemism for each lineage do not support human translocation, but rather demonstrate the impressive ability of giant tortoises to disperse long distances across oceans.     

Sabertooth characters in the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa Griffiths 1821)

The clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) is an unusual medium-sized felid whose ecology in the wild is poorly known. Mainly famous for its large canines, it has often been an overlooked taxon in analyses of felid morphology and systematics or has proven aberrant and difficult to interpret. In this article I report on a number of unusual features in the clouded leopard skull hitherto considered characteristic of sabertooth felids exclusively, and, accordingly, universally believed to be absent in extant felids. The skull morphology of the clouded leopard sets it apart from other extant felids, and in a number of respects it approaches the morphology of primitive sabertooths. This indicates convergence of several characters in machairodontine felids and the clouded leopard, mainly as adaptations for attaining a large gape. This raises doubts about the characters hitherto considered as distinguishing sabertoothed from nonsabertoothed predators, and since no evidence at present suggests a different functional killing and feeding ecology in Neofelis, regardless of its unusual skull morphology, also whether primitive sabertoothed felids were functionally similar to advanced forms such as Homotherium, Megantereon, or Smilodon.     

四川东南地区云豹(Neofelis nebulosa)分布区变化及其成因

物种的分布变化是衡量生物多样性变化的一个重要层面,也是生物多样性变化研究领域备受关注的热点。根据对四川省东南地区6县14个乡镇的访问调查,分析了四川省东南部云豹（Neofelis nebulosa）分布区的变化趋势,并对近10年潜在有无云豹分布的区域在1988年和2017年的景观格局进行对比分析,探讨了四川东南地区云豹分布区变化的原因。结果显示：（1）40年前云豹曾在调查区域广泛分布,近40年来云豹分布范围呈现逐渐缩减的趋势,到近10年潜在有云豹分布的仅3个县3个乡镇;（2）天然阔叶林是云豹适宜的生境,潜在有云豹分布地区阔叶林在近30年里均是面积最大的景观类型,30年间增加了18.13%。潜在无云豹分布地区阔叶林在30年前占比为13.67%,30年间减少了39.29%,其主要景观类型在30年间由农业用地转换为竹林类型;（3）30年间,潜在有无云豹分布地区阔叶林破碎化程度均加剧,而潜在无云豹分布地区的破碎化程度较潜在有云豹分布地区严重;（4）潜在有无云豹分布区域居民野生动物保护意识均不强烈,在潜在无云豹分布区域的保护意识和意愿稍高;（5）本研究认为,早在40年前由于人为捕杀和土地开垦,就导致云豹种群在研究区域内衰退,近30年虽然农业用地大幅转换为竹林使森林总面积增加,但并未对云豹的保护起到积极作用,阔叶林的生境退变则使前期已经衰退的云豹种群分布区持续缩减,以致难觅踪迹。