Behavior of dolphins towards adults and children during swim-with-dolphin programs and towards children with disabilities during therapy sessions

Abstract

In recent years, dolphin-assisted therapy has become very popular and an increasing number of facilities worldwide offer therapy programs with dolphins. In contrast to other animal-assisted therapy programs, dolphins are not domestic animals; they are mostly caught in the wild and there are still no studies on their behavior during these therapies. However, there is speculation that the behavior of dolphins toward people with mental and physical disabilities may play an important role in the success of the therapy. We observed 83 sessions with five untrained dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) at Dolphins Plus, a fenced area with ocean water in the Florida Keys, USA. Our detailed observations of contact and distance behavior between dolphins and different groups of swimmers (adults, children, and children with mental and physical disabilities) show that, in general, dolphins prefer small humans to adults. One dolphin showed a clear preference toward children with mental and physical disabilities, and we conclude that she showed assisting behavior.     

The Effect of an Animal-Assisted Intervention on Anxiety and Pain in Hospitalized Children

ABSTRACT

Forty children between the ages of 8 and 18 years, who were admitted to a hospital pediatric unit, were randomly assigned to an animal-assisted intervention (AAI) or an active control condition (working on an age-appropriate jigsaw puzzle). Ratings of pain and anxiety were taken both pre- and post-condition. The attachment Questionnaire and Family Life Space Diagram (FLSD) also were administered, and information on medications taken was recorded. A significant post-condition difference was found between groups for anxiety, with the aaI group having lower anxiety scores. However, no significant within- or between-group pre-post changes in either pain or anxiety were detected. Nearly two-thirds of the children (64%) reporting pain at baseline were receiving some type of analgesic, which may have influenced outcomes. Findings demonstrate some support that attachment may be a moderating variable: children with a secure attachment style reported lower pain and anxiety at baseline, with large effect sizes for differences in both anxiety (g = 1.34) and pain (g = 1.23). Although the aaI did not significantly reduce anxiety and pain in these hospitalized children, further investigation of the influence of analgesic use and the moderating effect of attachment style is indicated.     

Behavioral effects of the presence of a dog in a classroom

Abstract

To test the idea that dogs have a positive influence on the social behavior of school children, one of three dogs was introduced alternately into a class at an elementary school in Vienna, attended by 24 children (mean age: 6.7 years). Most of the 14 boys and ten girls came from first-generation immigrant families. With parental consent, their behavior was videotaped for two hours every week, during “open teaching situations,” first during a one-month control period in the absence of dogs, followed by an experimental period of similar duration, when a dog was present in the classroom. Frequency and duration of all observable behaviors of individuals and their interactions were coded from these tapes. Although major individual differences were found in the children's interest in the dog and their behavioral responses, the group became socially more homogenous due to decreased behavioral extremes, such as aggressiveness and hyperactivity; also, formerly withdrawn individuals became socially more integrated. Effects were more pronounced in the boys than the girls. Even though the children spent considerable time watching and making contacting with the dog, they also paid more attention to the teacher. We conclude that the presence of a dog in a classroom could positively stimulate social cohesion in children and provide a relatively cheap and easy means of improving teaching conditions.     

Association between burst-pulse sounds and aggressive behavior in captive Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)

A specific display observed during agonistic behavior among captive Atlantic bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) was examined. The primary component of the display was an open-mouthed posture accompanied by violent vertical head motions and the emission of pulse-type vocalizations. Jaw-clap behavior produced during the display was quantified for use as an index of aggressive motivation. By aurally monitoring the animals' vocalizations it was found that the level of aggressive response between the participants of the interactions increased with the production and subsequent duration of burst-pulse sounds. The possibility of burstpulse sounds resulting in auditory or tactile discomfort when directed toward conspecifics is discussed.     

Infant development in two aquarium bottlenose dolphins

The behavioral development of two aquarium bottlenose dolphin calves, one male (born to a primiparous mother) and one female (born to a multiparous mother), was examined. From birth to 9 weeks of age, a total of 558.7 h of nursing and behavioral data were collected using focal sampling methods. Data from both calves revealed a pattern of increasing independence as they aged, but there were significant differences between the two calves. Suckling rates, mean suckles per bout, suckling bout rates, and bout durations for the male calf were higher than those for the female calf throughout the study. These frequencies declined significantly over time in the male's case but not in the female's case. Her suckling durations (lock-on time) were longer than his. The male spent more time in infant position (under the mother) than the female calf and less time swimming in echelon position (alongside the mother). Over time, the male spent less time in infant position, and the female calf spent more time socializing and less time echelon swimming. Both calves decreased the amount of time spent close to their mothers over the 9 week period, and the mothers decreased their role in proximity maintenance over time. We suggest that factors related to maternal primiparity caused the male calf to develop an effective compensatory response of frequent nursing and spending more time in infant position. Both calves survived and were healthy at the end of the observation period. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Daylight occurrence of humpback dolphins Sousa chinensis in Algoa Bay, South Africa

This paper describes the pattern of daylight occurrence of humpback dolphins Sousa chinensis in Algoa Bay, the Eastern Cape, South Africa, between May 1991 and May 1994. Two indices, the Sighting Index (SI) and the Total Recorded Dolphin Presence (TRDP), were used to quantify the dolphins' daylight occurrence. Humpback dolphins display a clear pattern of daylight occurrence in Algoa Bay and can be seen mostly in the morning, and, to a lesser extent, in the evening. This pattern varies little between seasons (with possible exception for the evening hours), follows the time of the solar day, is not related to the tidal cycle and is probably governed by the diurnal cycles of dolphins' prey.     

Ecology and conservation of common bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus in the Mediterranean Sea

• 1 Bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus are amongst the best‐known cetaceans. In the Mediterranean Sea, however, modern field studies of cetaceans did not start until the late 1980s. Bottlenose dolphins have been studied only in relatively small portions of the basin, and wide areas remain largely unexplored.
• 2 This paper reviews the ecology, behaviour, interactions with fisheries and conservation status of Mediterranean bottlenose dolphins, and identifies threats likely to have affected them in historical and recent times.
• 3 Whilst intentional killing was probably the most important cause of mortality until the 1960s, important ongoing threats include incidental mortality in fishing gear and the reduced availability of key prey caused by overfishing and environmental degradation throughout the region. Additional potential or likely threats include the toxic effects of xenobiotic chemicals, epizootic outbreaks, direct disturbance from boating and shipping, noise, and the consequences of climate change.
• 4 The flexible social organization and opportunistic diet and behaviour of bottlenose dolphins may allow them to withstand at least some of the effects of overfishing and habitat degradation. However, dolphin abundance is thought to have declined considerably in the region and management measures are needed to prevent further decline.
• 5 Management strategies that could benefit bottlenose dolphins, such as sustainable fishing, curbing marine pollution and protecting biodiversity, are already embedded in legislation and treaties. Compliance with those existing commitments and obligations should be given high priority.

     

The effects of group and individual animal-assisted therapy on loneliness in residents of long-term care facilities

Abstract

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has been shown to reduce the loneliness of residents in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). In this study, we determined the relative contribution of socialization (human–human bonding) and human–animal bonding as mechanisms by which AAT reduces loneliness. Residents in LTCFs volunteering for AAT were randomized to receive AAT as individuals (Individual) or in groups of two to four (Group). Individual AAT was used as a measure of animal–human bonding, and Group AAT was used as a measure of the combination of animal–human bonding and socialization. Any greater effect of Group AAT in comparison to Individual AAT would be ascribed to socialization. Thirty-seven residents of LTCFs, who were cognitively intact, volunteered for AAT, and scored as significantly lonely on the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3), were studied. Six weeks of AAT, one 30-minute session per week, in an individual or group setting was performed, with posttesting during week five. Two residents dropped out of each group, giving us group sizes of 17 (Individual) and 16 (Group). A two-way ANOVA showed a statistically significant effect of pretest vs. posttest scores (F_(1,31) = 25.3, p < 0.001), with no effect of Group vs. Individual or of interaction. Newman Keuls post-hoc tests showed that the pretest scores for Individual and Group participants did not differ. There was a significant difference between pretest and posttest scores for Individual participants (p < 0.05) but not for Group participants. There was no difference between the posttest values for Individual vs. Group. When the data from all 33 participants were combined, Delta scores (pretest minus posttest), correlated positively (p < 0.01) with pretest scores, showing that lonelier individuals benefited more from AAT. In conclusion, AAT was more effective in improving loneliness in residents of LTCFs when given individually than in a group situation. Therefore, the main effect of AAT was not mediated by socialization.     

慢性应激不同方式对大鼠血清皮质酮的影响

目的：比较慢性应激不同方式对生理状态大鼠血清皮质酮水平的影响,研究机体慢性应激反应的整体性适应特征。方法：采用连续4周的适宜游泳、束缚和二者复合的三种应激方式后,测定大鼠血清皮质酮基础含量,分析不同慢性应激方式对皮质酮水平的影响。结果：血清皮质酮水平与对照组比较,复合组无显著性差异;游泳组虽升高但无显著性;束缚组升高有显著性意义。结论：束缚可致大鼠血清皮质酮水平增高;初步认定游泳与束缚复合慢性应激方式可能对机体的整体适应性能具有积极意义。     

Recreational fishing depredation and associated behaviors involving common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Sarasota Bay,Florida

Odontocete depredation involves stealing or damaging bait or prey already captured by fishing gear. The increase in depredation is of concern for small stocks of cetaceans because interactions with fishing gear can lead to serious injury or mortality through entanglement or ingestion. Using long‐term data sets available for the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) community in Sarasota Bay, Florida, we investigated recreational fishing gear interactions by (1) examining temporal patterns in depredation and associated behaviors from 2000 to 2007; (2) quantifying the behavior of dolphins that depredate or engage in associated behaviors; and (3) identifying factors associated with the rise in depredation locally. The number of incidents of dolphins (primarily adult males) interacting with recreational anglers and boaters increased following 2004. Depredation and associated behaviors increased during red tide lags and tourist seasons during times of prey depletion and heightened angler and boater activity. Dolphins with a history of fishing gear interactions shifted away from natural activity patterns and were more likely to be within 50 m of fishing lines. Recreational fishing gear interactions were attributed to a two percent population decline in Sarasota Bay in 2006 and need to be considered along with other cumulative human impacts in the development of conservation measures for dolphins.     

Methodological issues in studying the anxiety-reducing effects of animals: Reflections from a pediatric dental study

Abstract

This article reports observations made during a study investigating the role of a therapy dog in reducing anxiety in urban children visiting the dentist. The design and execution of the study were affected by methodological issues such as the reaction of urban children to the dog in the clinic, the tools used to measure anxiety in the children, the age and pet-ownership status of the children, and the personality of the therapy dog. Suggestions made for researchers designing similar studies include allowing children to become comfortable with the therapy dog before beginning formal data collection, working with younger children who have made fewer visits to the dentist, and using or developing more accurate tools for measuring behavioral and physiological anxiety.     

Effects of two different eight-week training programs on military physical performance

Various physical demands are placed on soldiers, whose effectiveness and survivability depend on their combat-specific physical fitness. Because sport training programs involving weight-based training have proven effective, this study examined the value of such a program for short-term military training using combat-relevant tests. A male weight-based training (WBT) group (n = 15; mean +/- SD: 27.0 +/- 4.7 years, 173.8 +/- 5.8 cm, 80.9 +/- 12.7 kg) performed full-body weight-based training workouts, 3.2-km runs, interval training, agility training, and progressively loaded 8-km backpack hikes. A male Army Standardized Physical Training (SPT) group (n = 17; mean +/- SD: 29.0 +/- 4.6 years, 179.7 +/- 8.2 cm, 84.5 +/- 10.4 kg) followed the new Army Standardized Physical Training program of stretching, varied calisthenics, movement drills, sprint intervals, shuttle running, and distance runs. Both groups exercised for 1.5 hours a day, 5 days a week for 8 weeks. The following training-induced changes were statistically significant (P < 0.05) for both training groups: 3.2-km run or walk with 32-kg load (minutes), 24.5 +/- 3.2 to 21.0 +/- 2.8 (SPT) and 24.9 +/- 2.8 to 21.1 +/- 2.2 (WBT); 400-m run with 18-kg load (seconds), 94.5 +/- 14.2 to 84.4 +/- 11.9 (SPT) and 100.1 +/- 16.1 to 84.0 +/- 8.4 (WBT); obstacle course with 18-kg load (seconds), 73.3 +/- 10.1 to 61.6 +/- 7.7 (SPT) and 66.8 +/- 10.0 to 60.1 +/- 8.7 (WBT); 5 30-m sprints to prone (seconds), 63.5 +/- 4.8 to 59.8 +/- 4.1 (SPT) and 60.4 +/- 4.2 to 58.9 +/- 2.7 (WBT); and 80-kg casualty rescue from 50 m (seconds), 65.8 +/- 40.0 to 42.1 +/- 9.9 (SPT) and 57.6 +/- 22.0 to 44.2 +/- 8.8 (WBT). Of these tests, only the obstacle course showed significant difference in improvement between the two training groups. Thus, for short-term (i.e., 8-week) training of relatively untrained men, the Army's new Standardized Physical Training program and a weight-based training experimental program can produce similar, significant, and meaningful improvements in military physical performance. Further research would be needed to determine whether weight-based training provides an advantage over a longer training period.     

Positive Behavioral Impact of Reptile-Assisted Support on the Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors of Female Children with Emotional Disturbance

ABSTRACT

The effects of animal-assisted support were tested with children identified with emotional disturbance. Forty female children, aged 12 years old, participated in one of two treatments: animal-assisted support or control support. All participants had experienced the death of a parent in the preceding year. When offered animals for their support group, the participants chose reptiles. The reptile-assisted support group discussed death and grief along with training in animal care and identifying displays of emotions and grief. The control group discussed death and grief without reference to, or interactions with, reptiles. Primary caregivers completed the Child Behavior Checklist-Parent version (CBCL-P) before and after the 16-week support group sessions. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine the effects of reptile-assisted support on internalizing, externalizing, and other behaviors, as measured by the CBCL-P. The findings suggest that the use of reptile-assisted support improved internalizing behaviors such as withdrawal and somatic behaviors, externalizing behaviors such as aggression/delinquency behaviors, and other behaviors such as social, attention, and thought. Future work is suggested to identify why these children with emotional disturbance chose reptiles rather than pets such as dogs and horses, which are commonly used in animal-assisted programs with children with disabilities.     

Dogs in child psychotherapy: Effects on state of mind

Abstract

Using a pretest-posttest design, this study investigates possible influences of animal-assisted therapy (AAT), using a dog, on the state of mind of children and adolescents who have undergone inpatient psychiatric treatment. To measure this, the Basler Befindlichkeits-Skala (BBS) was used, which measures general “state of mind” and provides four sub-scale scores: vitality, intra-emotional balance, social extroversion, and alertness. For Group 1 patients (n = 61, with AAT), the results show highly significant increases in all dimensions of the BBS. These changes were not found in a second group (Group 2, n = 39), in which there was no AAT. There was a significant negative correlation between pretest BBS scores and the change in scores that occurred after therapy incorporating AAT. Among seven patients in Group 1, a deterioration in state of mind was recorded. Under our controlled clinical conditions, an effect size of 0.38 was calculated for the therapy using a dog. Incorporating a dog could catalyze psychotherapeutic work with children and adolescents.     

Distribution and development of the highly specialized lipids in the sound reception systems of dolphins

Fat bodies in the heads of toothed whales, which serve to transmit and receive sound, represent extraordinary examples of physiological specialization in adipose tissues among mammals, yet we know surprisingly little about their biochemical composition. We describe the spatial distributions and development of unusual endogenous lipids (branched-chain [“iso”] molecules and wax esters) in the mandibular fat bodies of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) using an ontogenetic series (fetus to adult; n = 10). Although concentrations of iso-acids, iso-alcohols and waxes were lower in younger dolphins than in adults, the same relative spatial arrangement was present in all age classes, implying a set “pattern” of acoustic lipid distribution that is established very early in life. In all age classes, a small region of blubber overlying the lateral region contained unusually high concentrations of iso-acids, exhibiting a tenfold increase over “normal” adjacent blubber. Being chemically more similar to the acoustic fat bodies, this region may serve as an entry point for sound into the head. Developmental accumulations of some iso-acids and iso-alcohols occurred more rapidly than others, implying that not only are the spatial distributions of branched-chain molecules under extremely fine-scale control, but the regulatory mechanisms controlling acoustic lipid synthesis are also highly complex.     

Dog-Assisted Therapy in the Treatment of Chronic Schizophrenia Inpatients

ABSTRACT

Patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia living in long-term care units show high levels of disability. The present study aimed to assess the effectiveness of including a trained therapy dog in an intervention program applied to institutionalized patients with chronic schizophrenia. A randomized, controlled study with blind assessment was conducted. Twenty-four persons with chronic schizophrenia were randomly selected from a register that included all inpatients at Saint John of God's psychiatric hospital in Spain. Patients who agreed to participate (n = 21) were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment groups: one group received an intervention assisted by a therapy dog (IG+D) (12 patients), while the other received the same intervention but without a therapy dog (IG) (9 patients). The assessment items included the Positive and Negative Symptoms Scale (PANSS), the Living Skills Profile (LSP), the Brief World Health Organization Quality of Life Assessment (WHOQOL-BREF), and the Satisfaction with Treatment Questionnaire (STQ). Mann Whitney U tests and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were conducted. Patients in the IG+D group showed significant improvements in the LSP social contact score (p = 0.041), in the positive (p = 0.005) and negative symptom dimensions (p = 0.005) and total score of the PANSS (p = 0.014), and in quality of life related with social relationships (p = 0.024). Patients in the IG group showed significant positive changes in positive (p = 0.027) and general symptoms (p = 0.046) and total PANSS score (p = 0.027). No differences were found between the two groups before and after the application of the intervention. Introducing a dog into the psychosocial intervention for patients with schizophrenia produced some positive outcomes. However, the results of the study are not conclusive and must be interpreted cautiously.