Slovenian Students’ Knowledge and Opinions about Wild Boar (Sus Scrofa L.)

ABSTRACT

Wild boar are present almost throughout Slovenia, causing similar problems as in many other countries, mainly damage to agriculture. Dealing with these problems also involves children. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of age, gender, and farm residence on knowledge, attitudes, and opinions about wild boar management in 11- and 15-year-olds (n = 478) attending schools in/near areas of high wild boar densities, via an anonymous closed-ended questionnaire. Only 52.4% of the questions on factual knowledge were answered correctly, although a relatively high proportion of students (38.3%) reported having seen wild boar in their natural environment. The majority of students (81.4%) expressed affection toward animals in general, while only 11.3% stated that they liked wild boar. The main source of information about these animals was home (40.0%), followed by school (26.1%). Logistic regression analysis revealed that students’ age and gender usually predicted their response (p < 0.05), while living on a farm influenced only the source of information and one attitude question: farm residents were more likely to express affection toward wild boar. The older students were more likely to know more about wild boar, but they also were more likely to be indifferent toward the species. Boys and girls did not differ in their knowledge, but girls were more likely to express fear/dislike of wild boar. In general, older students and girls were more likely to be undecided in their responses. Since we found almost no effect of farm residence on students’ knowledge and opinions, it can be concluded that wild boar problems are recognized generally, not only in agriculture. Because information from home can be biased, we propose that teachers be encouraged to include wild boar topics in their teaching, educating young people properly about wild boar problems and consequently influencing their adult behavior concerning management issues.     

Attitudes toward Animals among German Children and Adolescents

ABSTRACT

This is the first study about attitudes toward animals among German children and adolescents. A sample of 543 pupils (261 boys, 282 girls) aged 11 to 17 (mean age = 13.37 ± 2.01 years) completed a questionnaire based on different established scales, for example, the Animal Attitude Scale (AAS) and the Intermediate Attitude Scale (IAS). Several aspects of attitudes toward animals and various dimensions of human–animal relationships were measured, including gender, age, grade, pet ownership, animal-related activities, meat consumption, and fear of and disgust toward animals. Gender and age were important factors in determining attitudes toward animals: pro-animal attitudes decreased with age and girls showed more positive attitudes compared with boys. Pet ownership and animal-related activities were associated with more positive attitudes toward animals, whilst meat consumption was related to lower pro-animal attitudes. There were no correlations between fear and general attitudes toward animals. The correlations between disgust and attitudes toward animals were weak. We found significant correlations among the different scales and subscales in animal attitudes.     

Belief in Animal Mind among Spanish Primary School Children

Beliefs concerning the mental experiences of nonhuman animals have been related to how people treat, see, and take care of nonhuman animals. Whereas this issue has been the subject of several studies on adults, few have been conducted with children. Taking advantage of a recently published scale, the Child-BAM questionnaire, we aimed to explore the beliefs in animal minds of Spanish primary school children. The study also considered the effects of a child's age, school year group, gender, and pet ownership on their beliefs in animal mind. The Child-BAM questionnaire, concerning the mental capabilities of eight different species (human, chimpanzee, dog, cow, otter, sparrow, frog, and fish), was distributed at a primary school sited in Cordoba, Spain. A total of 416 participants were included aged between 6 and 13 years. Each child provided scores for animals’ ability to have intelligence, experience pain, fear, happiness, and sadness, and total scores for the eight species were calculated. The results showed that children's beliefs about animal minds differed depending on the type of animal, and that children were more likely to believe in the emotional capacities of animals rather than their cognitive capabilities. Dogs achieved similar scores to humans regarding all capabilities, and higher than any other species, while the cow, fish, and frog generally scored the lowest. Age, school year group, and having a companion animal at home affected beliefs in animal minds, whereas gender had no effect. This study highlights cultural similarities in children's beliefs about animal minds and the potential importance of this variable for future research in child–animal interactions.     

Attitudes toward Animals among Kindergarten Children: Species Preferences

ABSTRACT

Attitudes toward animals are influenced by both animal traits (e.g., similarity to humans, aesthetic quality, size) and individual human attributes (e.g., gender, age, educational level, cultural factors). Although the examination of children's interest in animals, and their preference for different species, may evidence specific trends and help explain the development of attitudes, the vast majority of research has not considered children younger than 6 years. The present study was aimed at assessing preferences for a variety of animal species in a sample of 3–6 year-old Italian children, using a forced-choice task and visual aids (images of the animals). Pictures of 48 animal species, ranging from mammals to invertebrates, were presented to the children. Two photographic stimuli were simultaneously displayed and participants were asked to indicate their preference. Results show that the children preferred higher-order species, and domestic over wild animals. Apart from a few exceptions, invertebrates were the most disliked group of species among the children. Girls showed more negative and fear-related attitudes than the boys. Results are discussed taking into account different factors that may affect children's preferences for various animal species, that is, similarity to humans and aesthetical appeal. Greater knowledge on early attitudes toward animals has implications for promoting interest in animals and for building educational interventions for kindergarten children. This is particularly important in light of the growing use of different animals in educational and therapeutic contexts, as well as from an animal welfare perspective.     

Social and Individual Components of Animal Contact in Preschool Children

ABSTRACT

Humans are generally biophilic. Still, for unknown reasons, interest in animals varies substantially among individuals. Our goal was to investigate how differential interest of children towards animals might be related to social competence and personality. We proposed two alternatives: 1) Children may compensate for potential deficits in social competence by resorting to animals, and 2) Socially well-connected children may show a particular interest in animals. We focused on relationships between age, gender, family background, play behavior, personality components, and contact with rabbits in 50 children (22 boys/28 girls; 3 to 7 years of age) at a preschool in Krems/Austria. Data were analyzed using GLM. We found that each one of these variables had significant impact on intensity of engagement with the rabbits. In general, girls, children with siblings, and children without pets were more oriented towards the rabbits than were boys, children without siblings, or pet-owning children. The older the children, the less frequently they occupied themselves with the rabbits but the longer they remained when they did engage them. Furthermore, we found that the more “Confident/Respected” (PCA factor 1) and less “Patient/Calm,” “Cheerful/Sociable,” and “Solitary” (PCA factors 2–4) the children, the more time they spent in direct occupation with rabbits. Most effects of the investigated variables varied between boys and girls. By and large, our findings support the hypothesis that the “socially competent” children were particularly interested in the animals. Also, children's social styles, as evinced in interactions with peers, were generally reflected in how they interacted with the rabbits.     

The Relationship between Childhood Cruelty to Animals and Psychological Adjustment: A Malaysian Study

ABSTRACT

In Western research, cruelty to animals in childhood has been associated with comorbid conduct problems and with interpersonal violence in later life. However, there is little understanding of the etiology of cruelty to animals, and what in the child's life may require attention if the chain linking animal cruelty and later violence is to be broken. The study reported in this paper investigated the association between parent-reported cruelty to animals, and parent- and self-reported psychological strengths and weaknesses in a sample of 379 elementary school children in an Eastern context, Malaysia. No gender differences were found in relation to cruelty to animals or psychological problems, as assessed with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). However, there were different predictors of cruelty to animals for boys and girls. Regression analyses found that for boys, parent-reported hyperactivity was a unique predictor of Malicious and Total Cruelty to animals. For girls, self-reported conduct problems was a unique predictor of Typical Cruelty to animals. Parent-reported total difficulties were associated with Typical, Malicious, and Total Cruelty to animals. We suggest that routine screening of children with an instrument such as the SDQ may help to detect those children who may need to undergo further assessment and perhaps intervention to break the chain linking childhood cruelty to animals and later conduct problems.     

Parental Perceptions of their Children's Involvement with Household Pets: A Test of a Specificity Model of Nurturance

ABSTRACT

To test hypotheses derived from a specificity model of the development of children's nurturance, parents of preschool, second-grade and fifth-grade children (n=707) reported the frequency of their children's play with and care of pets as well as play and care directed to younger siblings, non-family babies, and elderly persons. Parents also reported on their children's frequency of expressed interest in animals, babies, and nurture in general. As predicted, gender differences were found for frequency of time spent with babies but not with pets. Frequency of time with pets was related to expressed interest in animals but not in babies. Children who had pets but no younger siblings were reported to spend more time with pets than were children with both pets and younger siblings. Children without pets were reported to express interest in babies more often than did pet owning children.     

Evaluating the Impact of a Humane Education Summer-Camp Program on School-Aged Children's Relationships with Companion Animals

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated the impact of children's participation in a five-day humane education summer-camp program on the quality of their relationships with and treatment of companion animals. We measured changes from pre- to post-program in 77 children (50 girls, 27 boys) aged 6–12 years. The program promoted positive interactions between children and animals in natural settings, with a focus on either companion animals or farm/forest animals. The Companion Animal Bonding Scale, the Pet Friendship Scale, the Comfort from Companion Animal Scale, the Children's Treatment of Animal Questionnaire, and a drawing task were administered to children prior to the beginning of the camp on day one and again at the end of day five. Overall, the results showed that after five days of humane education in summer camp, children reported sharing significantly closer bonds and friendships with their companion animals. These results were more pronounced for girls versus boys, among younger (aged 6 to 8 years) versus older (aged 9 to 12 years) children, and among children receiving the companion-animal versus farm/forest-animal curriculum. Older boys reported significantly lower scores on the humane treatment of their companion animals, compared with younger boys, and both older and younger girls. Comparisons by type of curriculum also suggested that the humane education curriculum that focused on farm/forest animals resonated more with the girls versus the boys. The implications for camp- and classroom- based humane education programs are discussed.     

Children's ideas of animals' internal structures

Children's understanding about animal internal structure can be affected by several factors which are poorly understoodby teachers. We conducted a large sample study (n=702) of children aged 6–16 years (Grades 1-9) examining children's responses to animals of various size, species and dimensions (2D and 3D objects), and exploring factors which might affect the development of their knowledge. Each child made a drawing of what they thought was inside a specimen animal. We found that using 2D representations of an animal negatively affected the content of children drawings.The effect of animalsize was shown only in children's understanding of skeletons, but not organ systems. The effect of animal species showedclear significant effect of children's ideas on both organ systems and skeleton. Investigation showed that parents' education level, children's experiences with animal-rearing and age significantly affected their scores from organ system. Surprisingly, school books were most frequently cited as sources of children's knowledge rather than their own experience, or information from the internet, encyclopaedias, television or parents.     

Attitudes toward Animals: A Study of Portuguese Children

In this study we analyzed the attitudes toward different animals in 210 Portuguese children: 107 boys and 103 girls, aged between 8 and 10 years, attending the 3rd and 4th years of primary school. We used a questionnaire with two distinct parts. In the first part, the children were asked about the degree to which they liked 25 different animals, using a scale ranging from ?7 (strongly dislike) to 7 (like very much), and to give their reasons for the value attributed. In the second part, they were asked whether in the event of the animals being threatened with extinction, it would be important to save any of them. We also asked for the reasons for their opinion. The most popular animals were big mammals and also birds. Certain gender differences were present, with boys preferring predators and other animals with a traditionally bad image, like bats and sharks. The most disliked animals were insects, but also those that were thought of as a danger to humans. However, we found a moderate positive correlation between liking and saving an animal, although this was lower in the case of the girls toward several animals. This shows that a negative perception of an animal does not always mean a negative attitude toward it. In part, the reasons for liking an animal were different from the reasons for saving it. All the results are important for the design of primary school teaching activities involving animals, including the fact that some reasons that the children gave revealed a lack of knowledge about the meaning of certain behaviors of the animals and of their ecological role.     

Wild Minds: What People Think about Animal Thinking

ABSTRACT

The question of how nonhuman animals think is pervasive in the scientific and popular media, yet there is an apparent lack of concordance between findings from research in animal cognition and how this information emerges in popular discourse. The present study investigated the way people conceive of animal thinking, in order to inform the development of an exhibit on animal minds that will address this issue and foster a deeper connection between people and animals. This two-part, sequential study of perceptions of animal thinking used qualitative interviews of visitors to the New York Hall of Science and Staten Island Zoo to develop a quantitative, online consumer survey of American museum visitors. The results show that American museum visitors vary in their perceptions of animal thinking, but appear to be open to new ideas about how animals might think. Participants' responses to the interviews revealed they could easily recognize survival strategies in wild animals, but had reservations about discussions of empathy, deception, and awareness. In addition, animals kept as pets or companion animals in Western culture were commonly perceived to have higher cognitive capacities for thinking than food or other domestic animals. Participants' responses to the online consumer survey appeared to focus on an overall concept of animal thinking, rather than different cognitive dimensions. Although participants were generally neutral in their responses, demographic analysis revealed participants who had dogs and/or cats, a college education, or watched nature shows were more likely to support the belief that animals can think. Participants who had children at home were less likely to support this belief. Further research is needed to determine how different kinds of thought processes are understood by general audiences and how demographic factors might influence perceptions of animal thinking.     

Animal-Related Activities and Appreciation of Animals Among Children and Adolescents

ABSTRACT

Five hundred and sixty-two children and adolescents, aged between nine and 15 years, from one urban and three rural areas in Southern Norway, completed a questionnaire in which they expressed their degree of preference for various animal species, participation in animal-related activities, and the presence of pets at home. The results showed that a majority of the respondents had an animal at home (71%), and participated in animal-related activities such as fishing (72%), feeding birds (74%), and reading about animals (66%). Participation in most animal-related activities decreased with increasing age. Pet owners liked farm and wild animals more than did respondents without pets. Positive associations were found between the liking of animal species and participation in animal-related activities. Gender differences were largest for horseback riding (girls most) and for fishing and hunting (boys most). Those who reported allergic reactions to animals, or had been injured by an animal, liked animals as much as, or more than, did the other respondents.     

The Strange Animal Situation Test

ABSTRACT

Many tools assess the reactions of humans encountering familiar or unfamiliar partners or environments. Companion animals belong to our everyday environment and influence our lives. Whereas many standardized tools test companion animals' reactions to humans, few evaluate humans' reactions to companion animals. We present here a test with a guinea pig that can be applied to a wide range of people in the home environment. This standardized test and simple coding system enabled us to characterize individual behavioral profiles of children and compare them in relation to different factors (e.g., gender, age, pet ownership). We observed 59 children (32 girls, 27 boys), aged between 6 and 12 years old. Our results show that most children first looked at the guinea pig (72%), smiled when they saw it (49%), and then went directly towards it without looking at their parent (79%). Many children touched the animal without hesitation (86%). Moreover, this test reveals more than the mere interest of children in guinea pigs. Indeed, a cluster analysis differentiated four behavioral profiles that reflected aspects of the children's experience, gender, and lifestyles. When encountering the unfamiliar guinea pig, children could be “confident” (go straight to the animal and touch it; 64%), “anxious” (look at parent; 12%), “indirect” (hesitate and touch; 14%), or “careful” (emit vocal and/or verbal behaviors; 10%). The potential future application of this research is to compare behavioral profiles quantitatively over the long term, taking into account the development and experiences of people with typical development and those with atypical development (e.g., autistic disorders).     

Influence of variation in birth weight within normal range and within sibships on IQ at age 7 years: cohort study

ObjectiveTo examine the relation between birth weight and measured intelligence at age 7 years in children within the normal range of birth weight and in siblings.DesignCohort study of siblings of the same sex.Setting12 cities in the United States.Subjects3484 children of 1683 mothers in a birth cohort study during the years 1959 through 1966. The sample was restricted to children born at ⩾37 weeks gestation and with birth weights of 1500-3999 g.ResultsMean IQ increased monotonically with birth weight in both sexes across the range of birth weight in a linear regression analysis of one randomly selected sibling per family (n= 1683) with adjustment for maternal age, race, education, socioeconomic status, and birth order. Within same sex sibling pairs, differences in birth weight were directly associated with differences in IQ in boys (812 pairs, predicted IQ difference per 100 g change in birth weight =0.50, 95% confidence interval 0.28 to 0.71) but not girls (871 pairs, 0.10, −0.09 to 0.30). The effect in boys remained after differences in birth order, maternal smoking, and head circumference were adjusted for and in an analysis restricted to children with birth weight ⩾ 2500 g.ConclusionThe increase in childhood IQ with birth weight continues well into the normal birth weight range. For boys this relation holds within same sex sibships and therefore cannot be explained by confounding from family social environment.

What is already known on this topic

IQ at school age is linked to birth weight among low birthweight babiesSome evidence suggests the association might also apply to children of normal birth weight

What this study adds

IQ at age 7 years is linearly related to birth weight among children of normal birth weightThe relation was not due to confounding by maternal or socioeconomic factorsIQ is also associated with differences in birth weight between boy sibling pairs but not girls     

Children’s ideas about the internal structure of trees: cross-age studies

Trees are important to the environment owing to their ecological services. However, many aspects of their form and function are poorly understood by the public. From their earliest years, children have an elementary knowledge about plants which they gain from their everyday observations, their parents and other people and from their kindergarten and primary schooling. The goal of this research was to investigate Polish children’s understanding of trees’ internal structure. This cross-age study involved 5-year-old children from kindergarten (n = 57, 26 boys and 31 girls) and 7-year-old children (n = 105, 57 boys and 48 girls) and 10-year-old children (83 children, 36 boys and 47 girls) from primary school. Participants were asked to draw the internal structure of a tree. The results of the study showed that there were some significant differences in the responses between age groups and between the genders. Nevertheless, there were some ideas that were shared among all age groups indicating that they might be resistant to change. The study also identified some alternative conceptions about the internal structure of plants and the influence of the media on children’s ideas.     

The Educational Benefits of a Ten-Week Home-Based Wild Bird Feeding Program for Children

ABSTRACT

This study evaluated a ten-week educational home-based program for feeding wild birds, intended to increase elementary school age children's knowledge about birds, especially those wild birds commonly encountered at outdoor home feeders. We measured changes from pre- to post-program in 65 seven- to 12-year old children's knowledge about wild birds, as well as in environmental attitudes. The goal was not only to increase bird knowledge in the target child but also to involve other family members in home-based nature education activities. After the program, seven- to nine-year old boys and girls showed significant gains in bird knowledge, but older children (10–12 years) did not significantly improve. Children's increased knowledge was positively associated with parental education. There was no systematic change in environmental attitudes. Parents identified family involvement as a particularly beneficial aspect of the program, and 90% of contacted families were still feeding birds one year after program termination.     

Biological Sciences Curriculum Study

In order to name an animal they see, children use their existing mental models to provide the animal with a name. In this study, pupils of a range of ages (4, 8, 11, and 14 years old) were presented with preserved specimens of six different animals and asked a series of questions about them. The results indicate that pupils of all ages mainly recognize and use anatomical features when naming the animals and explaining why they are what they are. However, older pupils are more likely to also use behavioural and habitat attributes. For both girls and boys, the home and direct observation are more important as sources of knowledge than school or books, although books seem more important for boys than for girls. As pupils age, their reasons for grouping animals become more complicated: in addition to relying on shared anatomical features, they begin to show evidence of an embedded taxonomic knowledge, knowing, for instance, what a mammal is and using this knowledge to group animals.     

Sibling and environment correlates of children's achievement: Sex group differences

Abstract

Regression surface analysis was used to examine associations between sibling variables and measures of academic achievement and intellectual ability at different levels of social status and family environment variables for girls and boys. The sample was 460 Anglo‐Australian families, each with an 11‐year‐old child. Family environments were defined by parents’ aspirations for their children and parents’ instrumental and affective orientations. Regression models included terms to account for possible linear, interaction, and curvilinear relations between sib size and birth order and measures of word knowledge, word comprehension, mathematics performance, and intellectual ability. The findings indicated that the sibling variables were poor predictors of children's cognitive performance. Typically, sib size and birth order were not related to children's academic performance at different levels of family environment scores.     

Companion Animals and other Factors Affecting Young Children's Development

ABSTRACT

This study focuses on three factors presumed to affect young children's development: their age, the quality of their home environments, and the child-pet relationship. Three sets of analyses are presented: effects associated with pet ownership (pet presence), effects associated with the strength of the child-pet relationship, and the combined effects of age, home environment, and the child-companion animal relationship. This study includes both a parent survey (n = 88) and in-home assessments (n = 44) of the three- to six-year-old children. The analyses support the hypothesis that normal preschool children's intellectual, motor, and social development is associated with the presence of a companion animal and increases with their age, the quality of their home environment, and their relationship with a companion animal. While the children's age and the quality of their home environments were associated with measures of the children's cognitive, motor, and social development, the companion animal effect was limited to the young children's social development including their empathy for other children.     

Children Love Their Pets: Do Relationships between Children and Pets Co-vary with Taxonomic Order,Gender, and Age?

Generally, children love their pets. However, a deeper insight into the beneficial effects of pets on the physical, psychological, and social wellbeing and development of children is needed. This study investigated whether children have more intense relationships with animals which are behaviorally similar to humans (according to the scala naturae), and whether the relationship patterns between 11- to 14-year-old children (n = 72) and their pets differ from those in prepubescent children, between 6 and 10 years of age (n = 84). We also investigated whether pet-relationship quality is associated with children’s age, gender, and number of siblings. Data about individual bonding type and attachment quality between the children and their pet were collected using a questionnaire. The results indicate that the younger children’s relationships clearly co-varied with taxonomic order of the pet. In contrast, 11- to 14-year-old children reported similarly high scores of attachment with their mouse or iguana as with their dog or cat, and the relationship patterns did not co-vary with taxonomic order. Gender effects on relationship quality were found in both age groups; especially girls reported intense relationships with their pets. In addition to gender, children without siblings had stronger attachment to their pet than children who had siblings. Our data suggest that young children develop high-quality relationships with pets, particularly those which are taxonomically closely related, such as dogs and cats, and less so with other pet species, such as birds or fish. Older children were also able to strongly attach to other pet species. We argue that mental relationship representations change during puberty and that older (11- to 14-year-old) children may no longer make attachments to pets based on them being behaviorally similar to people.