Epidemic clone I-specific genetic markers in strains of Listeria monocytogenes serotype 4b from foods

Listeria monocytogenes contamination of ready-to-eat foods has been implicated in numerous outbreaks of food-borne listeriosis. However, the health hazards posed by L. monocytogenes detected in foods may vary, and speculations exist that strains actually implicated in illness may constitute only a fraction of those that contaminate foods. In this study, examination of 34 serogroup 4 (putative or confirmed serotype 4b) isolates of L. monocytogenes obtained from various foods and food-processing environments, without known implication in illness, revealed that many of these strains had methylation of cytosines at GATC sites in the genome, rendering their DNA resistant to digestion by the restriction endonuclease Sau3AI. These strains also harbored a gene cassette with putative restriction-modification system genes as well as other, genomically unlinked genetic markers characteristic of the major epidemic-associated lineage of L. monocytogenes (epidemic clone I), implicated in numerous outbreaks in Europe and North America. This may reflect a relatively high fitness of strains with these genetic markers in foods and food-related environments relative to other serotype 4b strains and may partially account for the repeated involvement of such strains in human food-borne listeriosis.     

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms Detected with Novel DNA Probes Differentiate among Diverse Lineages of Serogroup 4 Listeria monocytogenes and Identify Four Distinct Lineages in Serotype 4b

Listeria monocytogenes of serotype 4b has been implicated in numerous outbreaks of food-borne listeriosis and in ca. 40% of sporadic cases. Strains of this serotype appear to be relatively homogeneous genetically, and molecular markers specific for distinct serotype 4b lineages have not been frequently identified. Here we show that DNA fragments derived from the putative mannitol permease locus of Listeria monocytogenes had an unexpectedly high potential to differentiate among different strains of serotype 4b when used as probes in Southern blotting of EcoRI-digested genomic DNA, yielding four distinct restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns. Strains of two epidemic-associated lineages, including the major epidemic clone implicated in several outbreaks in Europe and North America, had distinct RFLPs which differed from those of all other serotype 4b strains that we screened but which were encountered among strains of serotypes 1/2b and 3b. In addition, three serogroup 4 lineages were found to have unique RFLPs that were not encountered among any other L. monocytogenes strains. One was an unusual lineage of serotype 4b, and the other two were members of the serotype 4a and 4c group. The observed polymorphisms may reflect evolutionary relationships among lineages of L. monocytogenes and may facilitate detection and population genetic analysis of specific lineages.     

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms detected with novel DNA probes differentiate among diverse lineages of serogroup 4 Listeria monocytogenes and identify four distinct lineages in serotype 4b.

Listeria monocytogenes of serotype 4b has been implicated in numerous outbreaks of food-borne listeriosis and in ca. 40% of sporadic cases. Strains of this serotype appear to be relatively homogeneous genetically, and molecular markers specific for distinct serotype 4b lineages have not been frequently identified. Here we show that DNA fragments derived from the putative mannitol permease locus of Listeria monocytogenes had an unexpectedly high potential to differentiate among different strains of serotype 4b when used as probes in Southern blotting of EcoRI-digested genomic DNA, yielding four distinct restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns. Strains of two epidemic-associated lineages, including the major epidemic clone implicated in several outbreaks in Europe and North America, had distinct RFLPs which differed from those of all other serotype 4b strains that we screened but which were encountered among strains of serotypes 1/2b and 3b. In addition, three serogroup 4 lineages were found to have unique RFLPs that were not encountered among any other L. monocytogenes strains. One was an unusual lineage of serotype 4b, and the other two were members of the serotype 4a and 4c group. The observed polymorphisms may reflect evolutionary relationships among lineages of L. monocytogenes and may facilitate detection and population genetic analysis of specific lineages.     

Bias in the Listeria monocytogenes Enrichment Procedure: Lineage 2 Strains Outcompete Lineage 1 Strains in University of Vermont Selective Enrichments

Listeria monocytogenes can be isolated from a range of food products and may cause food-borne outbreaks or sporadic cases of listeriosis. L. monocytogenes is divided into three genetic lineages and 13 serotypes. Strains of three serotypes (1/2a, 1/2b, and 4b) are associated with most human cases of listeriosis. Of these, strains of serotypes 1/2b and 4b belong to lineage 1, whereas strains of serotype 1/2a and many other strains isolated from foods belong to lineage 2. L. monocytogenes is isolated from foods by selective enrichment procedures and from patients by nonselective methods. The aim of the present study was to investigate if the selective enrichment procedure results in a true representation of the subtypes of L. monocytogenes present in a sample. Eight L. monocytogenes strains (four lineage 1 strains and four lineage 2 strains) and one Listeria innocua strain grew with identical growth rates in the nonselective medium brain heart infusion (BHI), but differed in their growth rate in the selective medium University of Vermont medium I (UVM I). When coinoculated in UVM I, some strains completely outgrew other strains. This outcome was dependent on the lineage of L. monocytogenes rather than the individual growth rate of the strains. When inoculated at identical cell densities in UVM I, L. innocua outcompeted L. monocytogenes lineage 1 strains but not lineage 2 strains. In addition, lineage 2 L. monocytogenes strains outcompeted lineage 1 L. monocytogenes strains in all combinations tested, indicating a bias in strains selected by the enrichment procedures. Bias also occurred when coinoculating two lineage 2 or lineage 1 strains; however, it did not appear to correlate with origin (clinical versus food). Identical coinoculation experiments in BHI suggested that the selective compounds in UVM I and II influenced this bias. The results of the present study demonstrate that the selective procedures used for isolation of L. monocytogenes may not allow a true representation of the types present in foods. Our results could have a significant impact on epidemiological studies, as lineage 1 strains, which are often isolated from clinical cases of listeriosis, may be suppressed during enrichment by other L. monocytogenes lineages present in a food sample.     

Ability of the Listeria monocytogenes Strain Scott A To Cause Systemic Infection in Mice Infected by the Intragastric Route

Listeriosis is an important food-borne disease that causes high rates of morbidity and mortality. For reasons that are not clear, most large outbreaks of human listeriosis involve Listeria monocytogenes serotype 4b. Relatively little is known about the pathogenesis of listeriosis following gastrointestinal exposure to food-borne disease isolates of L. monocytogenes. In the present study, we investigated the pathogenesis of systemic infection by the food-borne isolate Scott A in an intragastric (i.g.) mouse challenge model. We found that the severity of infection with L. monocytogenes Scott A was increased in mice made neutropenic by administration of monoclonal antibody RB6-8C5. This observation was similar to a previous report on a study with the laboratory strain L. monocytogenes EGD. Prior administration of sodium bicarbonate did not enhance the virulence of L. monocytogenes strain Scott A for i.g. inoculated mice. Following i.g. inoculation of mice, two serotype 4b strains of L. monocytogenes (Scott A and 101M) achieved a greater bacterial burden in the spleen and liver and elicited more severe histopathological damage to those organs than did a serotype 1/2a strain (EGD) and a serotype 1/2b stain (CM). Of the four strains tested, only strain CM exhibited poor survival in synthetic gastric fluid in vitro. The other three strains exhibited similar patterns of survival at pHs of greater than 5 and relatively rapid (<30 min) loss of viability at pHs of less than 5.0. Growth of L. monocytogenes Scott A at temperatures of 12.5 to 37°C did not affect its ability to cause systemic infection in i.g. inoculated mice. These observations suggest that the serotype 4b L. monocytogenes strains Scott A and 101M possess one or more virulence determinants that make them better able to cause systemic infection following inoculation via the g.i. tract than do the serotype 1/2 strains EGD and CM.     

Genetic Markers Unique to Listeria monocytogenes Serotype 4b Differentiate Epidemic Clone II (Hot Dog Outbreak Strains) from Other Lineages

A small number of closely related strains of Listeria monocytogenes serotype 4b, designated epidemic clone I (ECI), have been implicated in numerous outbreaks of food-borne listeriosis described during the past two decades in Europe and North America. In 1998 to 1999, a multistate outbreak traced to contaminated hot dogs involved a different strain type of serotype 4b, with genetic fingerprints rarely encountered before. In spite of the profound economic and public health impact of this outbreak, the implicated bacteria (designated epidemic clone II [ECII]) have remained poorly characterized genetically, and nucleotide sequences specific for these strains have not been reported. Using genome sequence information, PCR, and Southern blots, we identified DNA fragments which appeared to be either absent or markedly divergent in the hot dog outbreak strains but conserved among other serotype 4b strains. PCR with primers derived from these fragments as well as Southern blots with the amplicons as probes readily differentiated ECII from other serotype 4b strains. The serotype 4b-specific region harboring these fragments was adjacent to inlA, which encodes a well-characterized virulence determinant. The findings suggest that ECII strains have undergone divergence in portions of a serotype-specific region that is conserved in other serotype 4b strains. Although the mechanisms that drive this divergence remain to be identified, DNA-based tools from this region can facilitate the detection and further characterization of strains belonging to this lineage.     

Competitive Fitness of Listeria monocytogenes Serotype 1/2a and 4b Strains in Mixed Cultures with and without Food in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Enrichment Protocol

Thirteen different serotypes of the food-borne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes have been described. Serotype 4b strains are most often associated with illness, and serotype 1/2a strains are most often isolated from foods and processing plants. Different abilities to respond to stresses have been described for serotype 4b and 1/2a strains. One of the common enrichment protocols used to test foods for the presence L. monocytogenes is described in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Bacterial Analytical Manual (BAM). We compared three strains of L. monocytogenes serotype 4b and five strains of serotype 1/2a in direct competition with each other in two-strain mixed cultures by using the FDA BAM enrichment protocol, which includes both enrichment broth and selective agar, with and without added food to mimic the conditions that occur during attempts to isolate Listeria species from contaminated foods. Using a colony immunoblot procedure and analyzing over 112,000 colonies, we observed differences in strain fitness, but these differences were not attributable to serotype or genetic lineage.     

Population Structure of Listeria monocytogenes Serotype 4b Isolates from Sporadic Human Listeriosis Cases in the United States from 2003 to 2008

Listeria monocytogenes can cause severe food-borne disease (listeriosis). Numerous outbreaks have involved three serotype 4b epidemic clones (ECs): ECI, ECII, and ECIa. However, little is known about the population structure of L. monocytogenes serotype 4b from sporadic listeriosis in the United States, even though most cases of human listeriosis are in fact sporadic. Here we analyzed 136 serotype 4b isolates from sporadic cases in the United States, 2003 to 2008, utilizing multiple tools including multilocus genotyping, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, and sequence analysis of the inlAB locus. ECI, ECII, and ECIa were frequently encountered (32, 17, and 7%, respectively). However, annually 30 to 68% of isolates were outside these ECs, and several novel clonal groups were identified. An estimated 33 and 17% of the isolates, mostly among the ECs, were resistant to cadmium and arsenic, respectively, but resistance to benzalkonium chloride was uncommon (3%) among the sporadic isolates. The frequency of clonal groups fluctuated within the 6-year study period, without consistent trends. However, on several occasions, temporal clusters of isolates with indistinguishable genotypes were detected, suggesting the possibility of hidden multistate outbreaks. Our analysis suggests a complex population structure of serotype 4b L. monocytogenes from sporadic disease, with important contributions by ECs and several novel clonal groups. Continuous monitoring will be needed to assess long-term trends in clonality patterns and population structure of L. monocytogenes from sporadic listeriosis.     

Conservation of Genomic Localization and Sequence Content of Sau3AI-Like Restriction-Modification Gene Cassettes among Listeria monocytogenes Epidemic Clone I and Selected Strains of Serotype 1/2a

Listeria monocytogenes is a food-borne pathogen with a clonal population structure and apparently limited gene flow between strains of different lineages. Strains of epidemic clone I (ECI) have been responsible for numerous outbreaks and invariably have DNA that is resistant to digestion by Sau3AI, suggesting methylation of cytosine at GATC sites. A putative restriction-modification (RM) gene cassette has been identified in the genome of the ECI strain F2365 and all other tested ECI strains but is absent from other strains of the same serotype (4b). Homologous RM cassettes have not been reported among L. monocytogenes isolates of other serotypes. Furthermore, conclusive evidence for the involvement of this RM cassette in the Sau3AI resistance phenotype of ECI strains has been lacking. In this study, we describe a highly conserved RM cassette in certain strains of serotypes 1/2a and 4a that have Sau3AI-resistant DNA. In these strains the RM cassette was in the same genomic location as in the ECI reference strain F2365. The cassette included a gene encoding a putative recombinase, suggesting insertion via site-specific recombination. Deletion of the RM cassette in the ECI strain F2365 and the serotype 1/2a strain A7 rendered the DNA of both strains susceptible to Sau3AI digestion, providing conclusive evidence that the cassette includes a gene required for methylation of cytosine at GATC sites in both strains. The findings suggest that, in addition to its presence in ECI strains, this RM cassette and the accompanying genomic DNA methylation is also encountered among selected strains of other lineages.Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive, facultative intracellular food-borne pathogen capable of causing severe disease (listeriosis) in animals and humans. Listeriosis most often affects pregnant women and their fetuses, neonates, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. The disease is predominantly transmitted via the consumption of contaminated foods and has a ca. 20% fatality rate (12, 27). Application of numerous genotyping methods has consistently shown that the organism has a clonal population structure with three major phylogenetic lineages: lineage I consists of strains of serotypes 1/2b, 3b, and 4b, while those of serotypes 1/2a, 1/2c, 3a, and 3c are clustered in lineage II; strains of serotypes 4a and 4c, along with certain serotype 4b strains, constitute lineage III (37, 38).Most epidemics of human listeriosis have involved a small number of closely related strains (epidemic clones), predominantly of serotype 4b (7, 35). The earliest identified clone, epidemic clone I (ECI), has been responsible for several major outbreaks in Europe and North America. In addition, strains of this clonal group are frequently encountered in sporadic illness (10, 28, 29). ECI strains have also been found to comprise a significant portion of the serotype 4b strains from foods and from the environments of food processing plants (10, 11, 40).Genomic DNA of ECI strains has been long known to resist digestion with Sau3AI, suggesting methylation of cytosine at GATC sites (41). Genome sequencing of the ECI strain F2365, implicated in the 1985 California outbreak of listeriosis, revealed a putative restriction-modification (RM) gene cassette with specificity for GATC sites (25). This RM cassette was harbored by all tested serotype 4b strains with Sau3AI-resistant DNA and was absent from those with DNA that could be digested with Sau3AI (40). These findings were in agreement with previous evidence that a fragment of the putative methyltransferase gene was specific to ECI and absent from other strains (14).In spite of extensive documentation for the presence of this putative RM cassette in ECI strains, and its apparent absence among other serotype 4b strains, limited information is available about the possible presence of the cassette among other lineages of L. monocytogenes. Furthermore, conclusive evidence for involvement of the cassette in the resistance of the DNA of ECI strains to Sau3AI digestion has been lacking. In this study, we investigated a panel of food-derived serotype 1/2a strains with Sau3AI-resistant DNA and characterized the genetic content and genomic localization of the RM cassette harbored by these strains. Furthermore, we employed deletion mutagenesis to assess the involvement of the RM cassette in Sau3AI resistance of the DNA of the ECI strain F2365, as well as of a serotype 1/2a strain harboring the cassette.     

Differentiation of epidemic-associated strains of Listeria monocytogenes by restriction fragment length polymorphism in a gene region essential for growth at low temperatures (4 degrees C).

The growth of Listeria monocytogenes in food stored in the cold has often been implicated in outbreaks of listeriosis. Many subtyping schemes have suggested that epidemic-associated strains belong to a unique genetic group. It has not yet been possible, however, to identify molecular or bacteriologic markers unique to epidemic-associated strains. Recently we cloned three genes of L. monocytogenes, ltrA, ltrB, and ltrC, which are essential for growth at low temperatures (4 degrees C). The use of a 1.2-kb PstI fragment derived from ltrB as a probe in Southern blots of HindIII-digested DNA revealed three hybridization patterns: the first (a 5.0-kb band) was observed in strains of serotypes 4b, 1/2b, and 3b; the second (a 3.1-kb band) was seen in strains of serotypes 1/2a, 3a, 1/2c, and 3c; and the third (a 9.5-kb band) was characteristic of epidemic-associated serotype 4b strains. These and other data suggest that probes derived from this gene region that is essential for growth at low temperatures can be useful molecular tools for the subtyping of strains implicated in food-borne listeriosis.     

Comparative analysis of CRISPR loci in different Listeria monocytogenes lineages

Listeria monocytogenes, an important food-borne pathogen, causes high mortality rate of listeriosis. Pan-genomic comparisons revealed the species genome of L. monocytogenes is highly stable but not completely clonal. The population structure of this species displays at least four evolutionary lineages (I–IV). Isolates of different lineages displayed distinct genetic, phenotypic and ecologic characteristics, which appear to affect their ability to be transmitted through foods and to cause human disease, as well as their ability to thrive in markedly phage-rich environments. CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats), a recently described adaptive immunity system, not only confers defense against invading elements derived from bacteriophages or plasmids in many bacteria and archaeal, but also displays strains-level variations in almost any given endowed species. This work was aimed to investigate CRISPR diversity in L. monocytogenes strains of different lineages and estimated the potential practicability of the CRISPR-based approach to resolve this species’ biodiversity. Only a third of strains contained all three CRISPR loci (here defined as LMa, LMb and LMc) at same time. Combined the strain-level variations in presence/absence of each CRISPR locus and its relative size and spacer arrangements, a total of 29 CRISPR genotypes and 11 groups were defined within a collection of 128 strains covering all serotypes. The CRISPR-based approach showed powerful ability to subtype the more commonly food-borne isolates of serotype 1/2a (lineage II) and serotypes 1/2b (lineage I), but limited by the absence of typical CRISPR structure in many lineage I isolates. Strikingly, we found a long associated cas1 gene as well as two self-targeting LMb spacers accidently homologous with endogenous genes in a fraction of serotype 1/2a isolations, demonstrated that CRISPR I B system might involve in bacterial physiology besides antiviral immunity.     

An Improved Cloning Vector for Construction of Gene Replacements in Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes is a gram-positive, facultative intracellular bacterium implicated in severe food-borne illness (listeriosis) in humans. The construction of well-defined gene replacements in the genome of L. monocytogenes has been instrumental to several genetic studies of the virulence and other attributes of the organism. Construction of such mutations by currently available procedures, however, tends to be labor intensive, and gene replacement mutants are sometimes difficult to recover due to lack of direct selection for the construct. In this study we describe the construction and use of plasmid vector pGF-EM, which can be conjugatively transferred from Escherichia coli S17-1 to L. monocytogenes and which provides the genetic means for direct selection of gene replacements.     

Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Listeria monocytogenes Strains F2365 and EGD

Listeria monocytogenes is a gram-positive, food-borne pathogen that causes disease in both humans and animals. There are three major genetic lineages of L. monocytogenes and 13 serovars. To further our understanding of the differences that exist between different genetic lineages/serovars of L. monocytogenes, we analyzed the global protein expression of the serotype 1/2a strain EGD and the serotype 4b strain F2365 during early-stationary-phase growth at 37°C. Using multidimensional protein identification technology with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, we identified 1,754 proteins from EGD and 1,427 proteins from F2365, of which 1,077 were common to both. Analysis of proteins that had significantly altered expression between strains revealed potential biological differences between these two L. monocytogenes strains. In particular, the strains differed in expression of proteins involved in cell wall physiology and flagellar biosynthesis, as well as DNA repair proteins and stress response proteins.     

Whole genome comparisons of serotype 4b and 1/2a strains of the food-borne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes reveal new insights into the core genome components of this species

The genomes of three strains of Listeria monocytogenes that have been associated with food-borne illness in the USA were subjected to whole genome comparative analysis. A total of 51, 97 and 69 strain-specific genes were identified in L.monocytogenes strains F2365 (serotype 4b, cheese isolate), F6854 (serotype 1/2a, frankfurter isolate) and H7858 (serotype 4b, meat isolate), respectively. Eighty-three genes were restricted to serotype 1/2a and 51 to serotype 4b strains. These strain- and serotype-specific genes probably contribute to observed differences in pathogenicity, and the ability of the organisms to survive and grow in their respective environmental niches. The serotype 1/2a-specific genes include an operon that encodes the rhamnose biosynthetic pathway that is associated with teichoic acid biosynthesis, as well as operons for five glycosyl transferases and an adenine-specific DNA methyltransferase. A total of 8603 and 105 050 high quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were found on the draft genome sequences of strain H7858 and strain F6854, respectively, when compared with strain F2365. Whole genome comparative analyses revealed that the L.monocytogenes genomes are essentially syntenic, with the majority of genomic differences consisting of phage insertions, transposable elements and SNPs.     

Synergistic Effects of Sodium Chloride,Glucose, and Temperature on Biofilm Formation by Listeria monocytogenes Serotype 1/2a and 4b Strains

Biofilm formation by Listeria monocytogenes is generally associated with its persistence in the food-processing environment. Serotype 1/2a strains make up more than 50% of the total isolates recovered from food and the environment, while serotype 4b strains are most often associated with major outbreaks of human listeriosis. Using a microplate assay with crystal violet staining, we examined biofilm formation by 18 strains of each serotype in tryptic soy broth with varying concentrations of glucose (from 0.25% to 10.0%, wt/vol), sodium chloride (from 0.5% to 7.0%, wt/vol) and ethanol (from 1% to 5.0%, vol/vol), and at different temperatures (22.5°C, 30°C, and 37°C). A synergistic effect on biofilm formation was observed for glucose, sodium chloride, and temperature. The serotype 1/2a strains generally formed higher-density biofilms than the 4b strains under most conditions tested. Interestingly, most serotype 4b strains had a higher growth rate than the 1/2a strains, suggesting that the growth rate may not be directly related to the capacity for biofilm formation. Crystal violet was found to stain both bacterial cells and biofilm matrix material. The enhancement in biofilm formation by environmental factors was apparently due to the production of extracellular polymeric substances instead of the accumulation of viable biofilm cells.Listeria monocytogenes, a Gram-positive bacterium, is capable of causing severe food-borne infections in both humans and animals. The organism is ubiquitous in the environment and can grow in a wide variety of foods, including those stored at refrigeration temperatures. It is particularly difficult to eliminate this bacterium from ready-to-eat foods and food-processing equipment (19). The ability to form biofilms protects the bacterium from stresses in food-processing environments (13, 25). Among the 13 different serotypes described, serotypes 1/2a, 1/2b, and 4b are involved in the majority of human cases of listeriosis. Serotype 4b strains have accounted for most human outbreaks, whereas the majority of L. monocytogenes strains isolated from foods or food-processing plants belong to serotype 1/2a (19).Comparative studies to link the phenotypic attributes of L. monocytogenes strains to serotypes have obtained variable results. Buncic et al. (4) have shown that serotype 1/2a isolates were more resistant to antilisterial bacteriocins than serotype 4b strains at 4°C. They also found that 4b isolates exhibited greater resistance to heat treatments at 60°C and were easier to recover than 1/2a strains immediately following cold storage. Bruhn et al. (3) observed that 1/2a strains (lineage II) grew faster than 4b and 1/2b (lineage I) strains in commonly used enrichment broth media (University of Vermont media I and II). However, other studies have indicated that similar differences could not be linked to a serotype (14), and sequencing results have shown a syntenic relationship between strains of the two serotypes (27).Some L. monocytogenes strains have consistently been isolated from food-processing plants over many years (1, 28). Although several studies have been carried out to identify differences in cell adherence and biofilm formation among different serotypes, conflicting results were obtained. Lineage I isolates (including serotypes 4b, 1/2b, 3c, and 3b) were found to produce higher-density biofilms than lineage II isolates (including serotypes 1/2a, 1/2c, and 3a) (8, 28). However, this conclusion was not supported by other studies (1, 7, 18). For serotype 4b strains, the capacity to form biofilms was reduced when the nutrient level in a medium decreased, while serotype 1/2a strains were not similarly affected (11).It has been suggested that the formation of a biofilm is a stress response by bacterial cells (15, 16). Biofilm research under laboratory conditions may not reflect biofilm formation in the environment. To investigate the behavior of L. monocytogenes in biofilms, a simulated food-processing (SFP) system including several stresses was designed (30). The SFP system was used to study 1/2a and 4b strains in mixed-culture biofilms (31). Bacterial cells from a 1/2a cocktail predominated over 4b strains when exposed to the SFP system for 4 weeks, but no competitive inhibition was observed. Environmental factors, including temperature, sugar, salt, pH, and nutrients that are common in foods and food-processing environments, have been demonstrated to have impacts on L. monocytogenes adhesion and biofilm formation (25). The objectives of this study were to investigate and compare biofilm formation between L. monocytogenes serotype 1/2a strains and serotype 4b strains under a variety of environmental conditions, including different temperatures and varying concentrations of salt, sugar, and ethanol, and to examine the synergistic effects of these factors on biofilm formation by both serotypes.     

Genetic markers unique to Listeria monocytogenes serotype 4b differentiate epidemic clone II (hot dog outbreak strains) from other lineages

A small number of closely related strains of Listeria monocytogenes serotype 4b, designated epidemic clone I (ECI), have been implicated in numerous outbreaks of food-borne listeriosis described during the past two decades in Europe and North America. In 1998 to 1999, a multistate outbreak traced to contaminated hot dogs involved a different strain type of serotype 4b, with genetic fingerprints rarely encountered before. In spite of the profound economic and public health impact of this outbreak, the implicated bacteria (designated epidemic clone II [ECII]) have remained poorly characterized genetically, and nucleotide sequences specific for these strains have not been reported. Using genome sequence information, PCR, and Southern blots, we identified DNA fragments which appeared to be either absent or markedly divergent in the hot dog outbreak strains but conserved among other serotype 4b strains. PCR with primers derived from these fragments as well as Southern blots with the amplicons as probes readily differentiated ECII from other serotype 4b strains. The serotype 4b-specific region harboring these fragments was adjacent to inlA, which encodes a well-characterized virulence determinant. The findings suggest that ECII strains have undergone divergence in portions of a serotype-specific region that is conserved in other serotype 4b strains. Although the mechanisms that drive this divergence remain to be identified, DNA-based tools from this region can facilitate the detection and further characterization of strains belonging to this lineage.     

Competition of Listeria monocytogenes Serotype 1/2a and 4b Strains in Mixed-Culture Biofilms

The majority of Listeria monocytogenes isolates recovered from foods and the environment are strains of serogroup 1/2, especially serotypes 1/2a and 1/2b. However, serotype 4b strains cause the majority of human listeriosis outbreaks. Our investigation of L. monocytogenes biofilms used a simulated food-processing system that consisted of repeated cycles of growth, sanitation treatment, and starvation to determine the competitive fitness of strains of serotypes 1/2a and 4b in pure and mixed-culture biofilms. Selective enumeration of strains of a certain serotype in mixed-culture biofilms on stainless steel coupons was accomplished by using serotype-specific quantitative PCR and propidium monoazide treatment to prevent amplification of extracellular DNA or DNA from dead cells. The results showed that the serotype 1/2a strains tested were generally more efficient at forming biofilms and predominated in the mixed-culture biofilms. The growth and survival of strains of one serotype were not inhibited by strains of the other serotype in mixed-culture biofilms. However, we found that a cocktail of serotype 4b strains survived and grew significantly better in mixed-culture biofilms containing a specific strain of serotype 1/2a (strain SK1387), with final cell densities averaging 0.5 log₁₀ CFU/cm² higher than without the serotype 1/2a strain. The methodology used in this study contributed to our understanding of how environmental stresses and microbial competition influence the survival and growth of L. monocytogenes in pure and mixed-culture biofilms.A prominent food-borne pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes can cause severe infections in humans, primarily in high-risk populations, though the disease (listeriosis) is relatively rare (11, 30, 43). Outbreaks of listeriosis have resulted from the contamination of a variety of foods by L. monocytogenes, especially meat and dairy products (27). L. monocytogenes is ubiquitous in the environment, able to grow at refrigeration temperature, and tolerant of the low pHs (3 to 4) typical of acidified foods (28, 32, 44). The capacity to produce biofilms confers protection against stresses common in the food-processing environment (13, 33).Biofilms are characterized by dense clusters of bacterial cells embedded in extracellular polymeric substances which are secreted by cells to aid in adhesion to surfaces and to other cells (4, 5). Strains of L. monocytogenes have been known to persist for years in food-processing environments, presumably in biofilms. Of the 13 known serotypes of L. monocytogenes, three (1/2a, 1/2b, and 4b) account for >95% of the isolates from human illness (21). Serotype 1/2a accounts for >50% of the L. monocytogenes isolates recovered from foods and the environment, while most major outbreaks of human listeriosis have been caused by serotype 4b strains (1, 3, 14, 15, 17, 22, 29, 31, 41, 47, 49,). No correlation between L. monocytogenes strain fitness and serotype has been identified (16, 19). Some studies have reported that strains repeatedly isolated from food and environmental samples (defined as persistent strains) had a higher adherence capacity than strains that were sporadically isolated (2, 36), while this phenomenon was not observed by others (7). Serotype 4b strains exhibited a higher capacity for biofilm formation than did serotype 1/2a strains (36), whereas this was not observed by Di Bonaventura and colleagues (6). It has been suggested that serotype 1/2a strains could be more robust than serotype 4b strains in biofilm formation under a variety of environmental conditions. Furthermore, strains of these serotypes differ in terms of the medium that promotes biofilm formation. Biofilm formation by serotype 4b strains was higher in full-strength tryptic soy broth than in diluted medium, whereas the opposite was observed with serotype 1/2a strains, which produced more biofilm in diluted medium (12).There is limited information on microbial competition between strains of different serotypes in biofilms or on how the environmental stresses present in food-processing environments may affect the biofilm formation and survival of L. monocytogenes of different serotypes. In food-processing plants, the environmental stresses encountered by bacteria are more complex and variable than most laboratory systems used for microbial ecology and biofilm studies. A simulated food-processing (SFP) system has been developed to address this issue (38). The SFP system incorporates several stresses that may affect bacteria in biofilms in the food-processing environment, including exposure to sanitizing agents, dehydration, and starvation. When biofilms were subjected to the SFP regimen over a period of several weeks, the cell numbers of L. monocytogenes strains in the biofilms initially were reduced and then increased as the culture adapted (38). The development of resistance to sanitizing agents was specific to the biofilm-associated cells and was not apparent in the detached cells (38). This suggested that extracellular polymeric substances present in the biofilm matrix were responsible for the resistance to sanitizing agents. It was subsequently found that real-time PCR, in combination with propidium monoazide (PMA) treatment of samples prior to DNA isolation, was an effective method for enumerating viable cells in biofilms (37).The objective of this study was to determine if strains of serotype 1/2a or 4b have a selective advantage under stress conditions. We investigated and compared the initial attachment and biofilm formation capabilities of L. monocytogenes strains of these two serotypes and analyzed the survival and growth of bacteria of each serotype in mixed-serotype biofilms in the SFP system by using PMA with quantitative PCR.