Characterization of human DAAO variants potentially related to an increased risk of schizophrenia

Considering the key role of d-serine in N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-mediated neurotransmission, it is highly relevant to define the role that enzymes play in d-serine synthesis and degradation. In particular, the details of regulation of the d-serine catabolic human enzyme d-amino acid oxidase (hDAAO) are unknown although different lines of evidence have shown it to be involved in schizophrenia susceptibility. Here we investigated the effect of three single nucleotide polymorphisms and known mutations in hDAAO, i.e., D31H, R279A, and G331V. A very low amount of soluble G331V hDAAO is produced in E. coli cells: the recombinant variant enzyme is fully active. Human U87 glioblastoma cells transiently transfected for G331V hDAAO show a low viability, a significant amount of protein aggregates, and augmented apoptosis. The recombinant D31H and R279A hDAAO variants do not show alterations in tertiary and quaternary structures, thermal stability, binding affinity for inhibitors, and the modulator pLG72, whereas the kinetic efficiency and the affinity for d-serine and for FAD were higher than for the wild-type enzyme. While these effects for the substitution at position 31 cannot be structurally explained, the R279A mutation might affect the hDAAO FAD-binding affinity by altering the “structurally ambivalent” peptide V47–L51. In agreement with the observed increased activity, expression of D31H and R279A hDAAO variants in U87 cells produces a higher decrease in cellular d/(d + l) serine ratio than the wild-type counterpart. In vivo, these substitutions could affect cellular d-serine concentration and its release at synapsis and thus might be relevant for schizophrenia susceptibility.     

Functional restoration of replicative senescent mesenchymal stem cells by the brown alga Undaria pinnatifida

The brown alga Undaria pinnatifida, which is called Mi-Yoek in Korea, has been traditionally consumed as a health food in East Asian countries. Recent studies have reported that U. pinnatifida has beneficial effects on arteriosclerosis, inflammation, fat metabolism, and tumors. In this study, we examined the anti-senescence effects of ethanol extracts of U. pinnatifida (UP-Ex) in human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBM-MSCs). UP-Ex protected hBM-MSCs against oxidative injury, as determined by MTT assays. This effect was confirmed by immunoblot analysis of the oxidation-sensitive protein p53 and the apoptotic protein cleaved caspase-3. Excessive intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation induced by oxidative stress was moderated in UP-Ex-treated hBM-MSCs (UP-Ex-MSCs). Similarly, expression of the ROS-scavenging enzymes superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), SOD2, and catalase was recovered in UP-Ex-MSCs. Excessive ROS induced by long-term cell expansion (passage 17) was significantly decreased along with restoration of the senescence proteins p53, p21, and p16 in UP-Ex-MSCs. UP-Ex treatment also improved the ability of these replicative, senescent hBM-MSCs (passage 17) to differentiate into osteocytes or adipocytes, suggesting that UP-Ex ameliorates the functional decline of senescent stem cells and may provide better therapeutic efficacy in stem cell therapy.

Abbreviations: hBM-MSCs: human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; DCF: 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein; DCFH-DA: 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein diacetate; MTT: 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-)2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; PBS: phosphate-buffered saline; PFA: paraformaldehyde; RIPA: radioimmunoprecipitation assay; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD1: superoxide dismutase 1; SOD2: superoxide dismutase 2.     

Late ROS accumulation and radiosensitivity in SOD1-overexpressing human glioma cells

This study investigates the hypothesis that CuZn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) overexpression confers radioresistance to human glioma cells by regulating the late accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the G(2)/M-checkpoint pathway. U118-9 human glioma cells (wild type, neo vector control, and stably overexpressing SOD1) were irradiated (0-10 Gy) and assayed for cell survival, cellular ROS levels, cell-cycle-phase distributions, and cyclin B1 expression. SOD1-overexpressing cells were radioresistant compared to wild-type (wt) and neo vector control (neo) cells. Irradiated wt and neo cells showed a significant increase (approximately twofold) in DHE fluorescence beginning at 2 days postirradiation, which remained elevated at 8 days postirradiation. Interestingly, the late accumulation of ROS was suppressed in irradiated SOD1-overexpressing cells. The increase in ROS levels was followed by a decrease in cell growth and viability and an increase in the percentage of cells with sub-G(1) DNA content. SOD1 overexpression enhanced radiation-induced G(2) accumulation within 24 h postirradiation, which was accompanied by a decrease in cyclin B1 mRNA and protein levels. These results support the hypothesis that long after radiation exposure a "metabolic redox response" regulates radiosensitivity of human glioma cells.     

pLG72 modulates intracellular D-serine levels through its interaction with D-amino acid oxidase: effect on schizophrenia susceptibility

Human genes coding for pLG72 and d-amino acid oxidase have recently been linked to the onset of schizophrenia. pLG72 was proposed as an activator of the human FAD-containing flavoprotein d-amino acid oxidase (hDAAO). In the brain this oxidizes d-serine, a potent activator of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor. We have investigated the mechanistic regulation of hDAAO by pLG72. Immunohistochemical analyses revealed that hDAAO and pLG72 are both expressed in astrocytes of the human cortex, where they most likely interact, considering their partial overlapping subcellular distribution and their coimmunoprecipitation. We demonstrated that the specific in vitro interaction of the two proteins yields a complex composed of 2 hDAAO homodimers and 2 pLG72 molecules. Binding of pLG72 did not affect the kinetic properties and FAD binding ability of hDAAO; instead, a time-dependent loss of hDAAO activity in the presence of an excess of pLG72 was found. The binding affects the tertiary structure of hDAAO, altering the amount of the active form. We finally demonstrated that overexpression of hDAAO in glioblastoma cells decreases the levels of d-serine, an effect that is null when pLG72 is coexpressed. These data indicate that pLG72 acts as a negative effector of hDAAO. Therefore, a decrease in the synaptic concentration of d-serine as the result of an anomalous increase in hDAAO activity related to hypoexpression of pLG72 may represent a molecular mechanism by which hDAAO and pLG72 are involved in schizophrenia susceptibility.     

Male-Specific Differences in Proliferation,Neurogenesis, and Sensitivity to Oxidative Stress in Neural Progenitor Cells Derived from a Rat Model of ALS

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive motor dysfunction and the loss of large motor neurons in the spinal cord and brain stem. A clear genetic link to point mutations in the superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) gene has been shown in a small group of familial ALS patients. The exact etiology of ALS is still uncertain, but males have consistently been shown to be at a higher risk for the disease than females. Here we present male-specific effects of the mutant SOD1 transgene on proliferation, neurogenesis, and sensitivity to oxidative stress in rat neural progenitor cells (rNPCs). E14 pups were bred using SOD1^G93A transgenic male rats and wild-type female rats. The spinal cord and cortex tissues were collected, genotyped by PCR using primers for the SOD1^G93A transgene or the male-specific Sry gene, and cultured as neurospheres. The number of dividing cells was higher in male rNPCs compared to female rNPCs. However, SOD1^G93A over-expression significantly reduced cell proliferation in male cells but not female cells. Similarly, male rNPCs produced more neurons compared to female rNPCs, but SOD1^G93A over-expression significantly reduced the number of neurons produced in male cells. Finally we asked whether sex and SOD1^G93A transgenes affected sensitivity to oxidative stress. There was no sex-based difference in cell viability after treatment with hydrogen peroxide or 3-morpholinosydnonimine, a free radical-generating agent. However, increased cytotoxicity by SOD1^G93A over-expression occurred, especially in male rNPCs. These results provide essential information on how the mutant SOD1 gene and sexual dimorphism are involved in ALS disease progression.     

A Docosahexaenoic Acid-Derived Pro-resolving Agent,Maresin 1, Protects Motor Neuron Cells Death

Maresin 1 is a novel pro-resolving mediator derived from docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), with potent anti-inflammation effects against several animal models, including brain ischemia, sepsis, and lung fibrosis. However, its effect against motor neuron cell death is still not investigated. Therefore, we investigated the effects of maresin 1 on several stress-induced motor neuron cell death. Maresin 1 suppressed combinatorial stress which was evoked by superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1)^G93A and serum-free, -induced motor neuron cells death in a concentration-dependent manner, and had a stronger neuroprotective effective than DHA. Maresin 1 also had neuroprotective effects against transactivation response DNA-binding protein (TDP)-43^A315T and serum-free stress, H₂O₂, and tunicamycin-induced cell death. Maresin 1 reduced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production caused by SOD1^G93A or TDP-43^A315T. Moreover, maresin 1 suppressed the NF-κB activation induced by SOD1^G93A and serum-free stress. These data indicate that maresin 1 has motor neuron protective effects against several stresses by reduction of ROS production or attenuation of the NF-κB activation. Maresin 1 also had neuroprotective effects against H₂O₂, and tunicamycin-induced cell death in a concentration-dependent manner. Finally, maresin 1 ameliorated the motor function deficits of spinal muscular atrophy model in which endoplasmic reticulum stress was upregulated. Thus, maresin 1 may be beneficial to protect against motor neuron diseases.     

Vascular endothelial growth factor prevents G93A‐SOD1‐induced motor neuron degeneration

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an adult‐onset neurodegenerative disorder characterized by selective loss of motor neurons (MNs). Twenty percent of familial ALS cases are associated with mutations in Cu²⁺/Zn²⁺ superoxide dismutase (SOD1). To specifically understand the cellular mechanisms underlying mutant SOD1 toxicity, we have established an in vitro model of ALS using rat primary MN cultures transfected with an adenoviral vector encoding a mutant SOD1, G93A‐SOD1. Transfected cells undergo axonal degeneration and alterations in biochemical responses characteristic of cell death such as activation of caspase‐3. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is an angiogenic and neuroprotective growth factor that can increase axonal outgrowth, block neuronal apoptosis, and promote neurogenesis. Decreased VEGF gene expression in mice results in a phenotype similar to that seen in patients with ALS, thus linking loss of VEGF to the pathogenesis of MN degeneration. Decreased neurotrophic signals prior to and during disease progression may increase MN susceptibility to mutant SOD1‐induced toxicity. In this study, we demonstrate a decrease in VEGF and VEGFR2 levels in the spinal cord of G93A‐SOD1 ALS mice. Furthermore, in isolated MN cultures, VEGF alleviates the effects of G93A‐SOD1 toxicity and neuroprotection involves phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling. Overall, these studies validate the usefulness of VEGF as a potential therapeutic factor for the treatment of ALS and give valuable insight into the responsible signaling pathways and mechanisms involved. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Develop Neurobiol, 2009     

Superoxide dismutase 1 modulates expression of transferrin receptor

Copper–zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) plays a protective role against the toxicity of superoxide, and studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and in Drosophila have suggested an additional role for SOD1 in iron metabolism. We have studied the effect of the modulation of SOD1 levels on iron metabolism in a cultured human glial cell line and in a mouse motoneuronal cell line. We observed that levels of the transferrin receptor and the iron regulatory protein 1 were modulated in response to altered intracellular levels of superoxide dismutase activity, carried either by wild-type SOD1 or by an SOD-active amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) mutant enzyme, G93A-SOD1, but not by a superoxide dismutase inactive ALS mutant, H46R-SOD1. Ferritin expression was also increased by wild-type SOD1 overexpression, but not by mutant SOD1s. We propose that changes in superoxide levels due to alteration of SOD1 activity affect iron metabolism in glial and neuronal cells from higher eukaryotes and that this may be relevant to diseases of the nervous system.     

Deleterious role of superoxide dismutase in the mitochondrial intermembrane space

This work demonstrates how increased activity of copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) paradoxically boosts production of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the intermembrane space (IMS) of mitochondria. Even though SOD1 is a cytosolic enzyme, a fraction of it is found in the IMS, where it is thought to provide protection against oxidative damage. We found that SOD1 controls cytochrome c-catalyzed peroxidation in vitro when superoxide is available. The presence of SOD1 significantly increased the rate of ROS production in mitoplasts, which are devoid of outer membrane and IMS. In response to inhibition of respiration with antimycin A, isolated mouse wild-type mitochondria increased ROS production, but the mitochondria from mice lacking SOD1 (SOD1(-/-)) did not. Also, lymphocytes isolated from SOD1(-/-) mice produced significantly less ROS than did wild-type cells and were more resistant to apoptosis induced by inhibition of respiration. Moreover, an increased amount of the toxic mutant G93A SOD1 in the IMS increased ROS production. The mitochondrial dysfunction and cell damage paradoxically induced by SOD1-mediated ROS production may be implicated in chronic degenerative diseases.     

硫化氢通过调控SIRT1抑制阿霉素诱导的H9c2细胞损伤

目的探讨硫化氢（H₂S）对阿霉素（DOX）诱导的H9c2细胞损伤的影响及其作用机制。 方法H₂S对DOX心肌毒性保护作用的实验分组为：对照组（Control组）,5?μmol/?L DOX处理组（A组）,5?μmol/L DOX和400?μmol/L NaHS共同处理组（B组）,400?μmol/L NaHS单独处理组（C组）,5?μmol/L DOX、400?μmol/L NaHS和15?μmol/L Sirtinol共同处理组（D组）,15?μmol/L Sirtinol单独处理组（E组）。SIRT1是否参与H₂S抗DOX心肌毒性作用机制的实验分组为：对照组（Control组）,5?μmol/L DOX处理组（F组）,5?μmol/L DOX和400?μmol/L NaHS共同处理组（G组）,5?μmol/L DOX、400?μmol/L NaHS和15?μmol/L Sirtinol共同处理组（H组）,15?μmol/L Sirtinol单独处理组（I组）。使用MTT法检测细胞活力;Elisa法检测细胞MDA以及SOD水平;DCFH-?DA荧光探针法检测ROS水平;采用Western Blot法检测SIRT1蛋白表达。使用单因素方差分析法进行统计学分析。 结果NaHS预处理可抑制DOX导致的H9c2细胞活力下降：Control组,A组、B组、C组细胞活力分别为100﹪、（54.58±1.58）﹪、（85.05±4.31）﹪、（100.22±4.46）﹪ （F = 134.9,P < 0.001）。NaHS预处理可减弱DOX引起的H9c2细胞ROS、MDA水平的增加以及SOD水平的降低：Control组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是100﹪、（34.18±1.56） μmol/g、（53.69±1.44） U/?mg;A组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是（174.90±12.65）﹪、（72.65±2.66） μmol/g、（31.80±2.05） U/?mg;B组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是（126.08±6.25）﹪、（44.59±1.92） μmol/g、（48.06±1.56） U/mg;C组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是（91.86±1.66）﹪、（32.93±1.56）?μmol/?g、（55.93±1.58）?U/?mg （F?= 83.26,P < 0.001;F = 271.4,P < 0.001;F = 127.0,P < 0.001）。F组（6、12、24?h）H9c2细胞SIRT1蛋白表达水平分别是（0.45±0.03）、（0.27±0.02）、（0.25±0.03）,较Control组（1.00±0.00）降低（F = 611.1,P < 0.001）。本研究还发现,NaHS预处理H9c2细胞能阻止DOX引起的SIRT1蛋白表达下调：Control组、F组、G组、H组的SIRT1蛋白表达水平分别是（1.00±0.00）、（0.31±0.03）、（0.60±0.04）、（1.09±0.09）（F = 123.4,P?2S对DOX诱导的H9c2细胞活力降低的抑制作用：Control组,F组、G组、H组、I组细胞活力分别为100﹪、（54.58±1.58）﹪、（85.37±3.62）﹪、（71.11±2.11）﹪、（97.53±1.45）﹪ （F = 238.2,P < 0.001）。Sirtinol预处理可明显逆转H₂S对DOX导致的H9c2细胞ROS和MDA含量增加及SOD水平降低的抑制作用：Control组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是100﹪、（35.84±2.22）μmol/?g、（53.03±3.16） U/mg;F组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是（184.6±11.33）﹪、（74.78±5.30）μmol/g、（29.26±0.85）U/mg;G组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是（126.5±7.57）﹪、（41.95±3.43）μmol/g、（52.61±2.26）U/mg;H组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是（174.7±5.50）﹪、（67.69±1.52） μmol/g、（35.33±1.95） U/mg,I组的ROS、MDA和SOD水平分别是（98.03±2.86）﹪、（37.66±2.49）μmol/g、51.14 U/mg（F = 112.0,P < 0.001;F = 93.73,P < 0.001;F = 84.92,P < 0.001）。 结论H₂S通过调控SIRT1抑制DOX诱导的H9c2细胞损伤。     

Is rat an appropriate animal model to study the involvement of D-serine catabolism in schizophrenia? Insights from characterization of D-amino acid oxidase

D-Amino acid oxidase (DAAO; EC1.4.3.3) has been proposed to play a main role in the degradation of D-serine, an allosteric activator of the N-methyl-D-aspartate-type glutamate receptor in the human brain, and to be associated with the onset of schizophrenia. To prevent excessive D-serine degradation, novel drugs for schizophrenia treatment based on DAAO inhibition were designed and tested on rats. However, the properties of rat DAAO are unknown and various in vivo trials have demonstrated the effects of DAAO inhibitors on d-serine concentration in rats. In the present study, rat DAAO was efficiently expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant enzyme was purified as an active, 40 kDa monomeric flavoenzyme showing the basic properties of the dehydrogenase-oxidase class of flavoproteins. Rat DAAO differs significantly from the human counterpart because: (a) it possesses a different substrate specificity; (b) it shows a lower kinetic efficiency, mainly as a result of a low substrate affinity; (c) it differs in affinity for the binding of classical inhibitors; (d) it is a stable monomer in the absence of an active site ligand; and (e) it interacts with the mammalian protein modulator pLG72 yielding a ~100 kDa complex in addition to the ~200 kDa one, as formed by the human DAAO. Furthermore, the concentration of endogenous D-serine in U87 glioblastoma cells was not affected by transfection with rat DAAO, whereas it was significantly decreased when expressing the human homologue. These results raise doubt on the use of the rat as a model system for testing new drugs against schizophrenia and indicate a different physiological function of DAAO in rodents and humans.     

A hyperthermophilic protein G variant engineered via directed evolution prevents the formation of toxic SOD1 oligomers

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder characterized by selective death of motor neurons in the brainstem, motor cortex, and spinal cord, leading to muscle atrophy and eventually to death. It is currently held that various oligomerization-inducing mutations in superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), an amyloid-forming protein, may be implicated in the familial form of this fast-progressing highly lethal neurodegenerative disease. A possible therapeutic approach could therefore lie in developing inhibitors to SOD1 mutants. By screening a focused mutagenesis library, mutated randomly in specific “stability patch” positions of the B1 domain of protein G (HTB1), we previously identified low affinity inhibitors of aggregation of SOD1_G93A and SOD1_G85R mutants. Herein, with the aim to generate a more potent inhibitor with higher affinity to SOD1 mutants, we employed an unbiased, random mutagenesis approach covering the entire sequence space of HTB1 to optimize as yet undefined positions for improved interactions with SOD1. Using affinity maturation screens in yeast, we identified a variant, which we designated HTB1_M3, that bound strongly to SOD1 misfolded mutants but not to wild-type SOD1. In-vitro aggregation assays indicated that in the presence of HTB1_M3 misfolded SOD1 assembled into oligomeric species that were not toxic to NSC-34 neuronal cells. In addition, when NSC-34 cells were exposed to misfolded SOD1 mutants, either soluble or preaggregated, in the presence of HTB1_M3, this inhibitor prevented the prion-like propagation of SOD1 from one neuronal cell to another by blocking the penetration of SOD1 into the neuronal cells.     

Association of a new intronic polymorphism of the SOD2 gene (G1677T) with cancer

There is growing evidence of the correlation between cancer and reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially superoxide. Low expression levels of the Mn‐superoxide dismutase (SOD2) enzyme have been reported in cancer patients. Genetic variation in the regulatory regions of the SOD2 gene may increase the risk of cancer. We identified a genetic variation (G1677T, rs2Y758Y339) in the vicinity of the enhancer region located in intron 2 of the SOD2 gene that creates a potential glucocorticoid responsive element, and developed an assay to screen DNA samples of 220 individuals (73 control, 59 prostate cancer survival individuals and 88 lung cancer biopsies). There were no significant differences in the genotype frequency distribution among prostate, lung cancer and control (p = 0.074 and 0.057, respectively). However, we identified an association of T allele with a decreased risk of lung cancer (OR = 0.525, p = 0.037). The use of the G1677T polymorphism of SOD2 gene as a genetic risk marker may suggest new approaches for detection, prevention, treatment, and prognosis of cancer. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anionic Surfactant,Linear Alkyl Benzene Sulphonate Induced Oxidative Stress and Hepatic Impairments in Fish <Emphasis Type="Italic">Channa punctatus</Emphasis>

Linear alkyl benzene sulphonate (LAS), one of the main ingredients used in synthetic detergents to enhance their cleansing properties. Indiscriminate and untreated discharge of detergents and their residues in both lantic and lotic habitats pose a variety of ecological threats and also adversely affect aquatic fauna. In vivo, LAS metabolism and biotransformation occurs via monooxygenases in liver, leading to Reactive Oxygen Species, ROS, production and consequently oxidative stress by disturbing cellular antioxidant enzymatic equilibrium. Present study aims to evaluate the activities of two widely distributed antioxidant enzymes viz., catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and ROS induced histological impairments in liver of freshwater fish, Channa punctatus. For the estimation of oxidative stress and hepatic impairments, well acclimatized fishes were divided in three groups. Fish of group G1 serves as control whereas fish of the other two groups, G2 and G3 were exposed to two fractions, 1/20th and 1/10th of 96 h LC₅₀ of LAS for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of exposure periods. Our results showed a significant induction in CAT and SOD activities in liver tissue of C. punctatus in a dose and time dependent manner. ROS induced histopathological impairments in hepatic tissues are characterized by loosely arranged, irregularly distributed and degenerated hepatocytes with increased vacuolization and pyknotic nuclei. The results are quite suggestive that LAS intoxication generates oxidative stress by ROS production which brings about histopathological impairments in exposed fish.     

Gastrin inhibits motility,decreases cell death levels and increases proliferation in human glioblastoma cell lines

Whether they are of low or high histopathological grade, human astrocytic tumors are characterized by a marked propensity to diffuse into large areas of normal brain parenchyma. This invasion relates mainly to cell motility, which enables individual cell migration to take place. The present study characterizes in vitro the gastrin-mediated effects on both the growth (cell proliferation vs. cell death) and motility dynamics of the human U87 and U373 glioblastoma cell lines. A computer-assisted phase-contrast microscope was used to track the number of mitoses versus cell deaths every 4 min over a 72-h period and so to quantitatively describe the trajectories of living U373 and U87 cells growing on plastic supports in culture media both with and without the addition of 0.1, 5, or 100 nM gastrin. While 5 or 100 nM gastrin only weakly (p < .05 to p < .01) increased cell proliferation in the U87 cell line and not in U373 one, it very significantly (p < .001) inhibited the amount of cell death at 5 and 100 nM in both the U87 and U373 lines. In addition, 5 nM gastrin markedly inhibited cell mobility in U87 (p < .00001) and U373 (p < .0001) glioblastoma models. All these data strongly suggest that gastrin plays a major role in the biological behavior of the in vitro U87 and U373 human glioblastoma cell lines in matters concerning their levels of cell motility and growth dynamics. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 37: 373–382, 1998     

Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (VdSOD1) mediates reactive oxygen species detoxification and modulates virulence in Verticillium dahliae

The accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a widespread defence mechanism in higher plants against pathogen attack and sometimes is the cause of cell death that facilitates attack by necrotrophic pathogens. Plant pathogens use superoxide dismutase (SOD) to scavenge ROS derived from their own metabolism or generated from host defence. The significance and roles of SODs in the vascular plant pathogen Verticillium dahliae are unclear. Our previous study showed a significant upregulation of Cu/Zn-SOD1 (VdSOD1) in cotton tissues following V. dahliae infection, suggesting that it may play a role in pathogen virulence. Here, we constructed VdSOD1 deletion mutants (ΔSOD1) and investigated its function in scavenging ROS and promoting pathogen virulence. ΔSOD1 had normal growth and conidiation but exhibited significantly higher sensitivity to the intracellular ROS generator menadione. Despite lacking a signal peptide, assays in vitro by western blot and in vivo by confocal microscopy revealed that secretion of VdSOD1 is dependent on the Golgi reassembly stacking protein (VdGRASP). Both menadione-treated ΔSOD1 and cotton roots infected with ΔSOD1 accumulated more and less H₂O₂ than with the wildtype strain. The absence of a functioning VdSOD1 significantly reduced symptom severity and pathogen colonization in both cotton and Nicotiana benthamiana. VdSOD1 is nonessential for growth or viability of V. dahliae, but is involved in the detoxification of both intracellular ROS and host-generated extracellular ROS, and contributes significantly to virulence in V. dahliae.     

Important role for Rac1 in regulating reactive oxygen species generation and pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell growth

Vascular NADPH oxidases have been shown to be a major source of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Recent studies have also implicated ROS in the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells. However, the components required for activation of the NADPH oxidase complex have not been clearly elucidated. Here we demonstrate that ROS generation in ovine pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) requires the activation of Rac1, implicating this protein as an important subunit of the NADPH oxidase complex. Our results, using a geranylgeranyl transferase inhibitor (GGTI-287), demonstrated a dose-dependent inhibition of Rac1 activity and ROS production. This was associated with an inhibition of PASMC proliferation with an arrest at G(2)/M. The inhibition of Rac1 by GGTI-287 led us to more specifically target Rac1 to investigate its role in the generation of ROS and cellular proliferation. To accomplish this, we utilized a dominant negative Rac1 (N17Rac1) and a constitutively active Rac1 (V12Rac1). These two forms of Rac1 were transiently expressed in PASMCs using adenovirus-mediated gene transfer. N17Rac1 expression resulted in decreased cellular Rac1 activity, whereas V12Rac1 infection showed increased activity. Compared with controls, the V12Rac1-expressing cells had higher levels of ROS production and increased proliferation, whereas the N17Rac1-expressing cells had decreased ROS generation and proliferation and cell cycle arrest at G(2)/M. However, the inhibition of cell growth produced by N17Rac1 overexpression could be overcome if cells were co-incubated with the Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase inhibitor DETC. These results indicate the importance of Rac1 in ROS generation and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells.     

Shikonin Kills Glioma Cells through Necroptosis Mediated by RIP-1

Background and Purpose

Shikonin was reported to induce necroptosis in leukemia cells, but apoptosis in glioma cell lines. Thus, it is needed to clarify whether shikonin could cause necroptosis in glioma cells and investigate its underlying mechanisms.

Methods

Shikonin and rat C6 glioma cell line and Human U87 glioma cell line were used in this study. The cellular viability was assayed by MTT. Flow cytometry with annexin V-FITC and PI double staining was used to analyze cellular death modes. Morphological alterations in C6 glioma cells treated with shikoinin were evaluated by electronic transmission microscopy and fluorescence microscopy with Hoechst 33342 and PI double staining. The level of reactive oxygen species was assessed by using redox-sensitive dye DCFH-DA. The expressional level of necroptosis associated protein RIP-1 was analyzed by western blotting.

Results

Shikonin induced cell death in C6 and U87 glioma cells in a dose and time dependent manner. The cell death in C6 and U87 glioma cells could be inhibited by necroptosis inhibitor necrotatin-1, not by pan-caspase inhibitor z-VAD-fmk. Shikonin treated C6 glioma cells presented electron-lucent cytoplasm, loss of plasma membrane integrity and intact nuclear membrane in morphology. The increased ROS level caused by shikonin was attenuated by necrostatin-1 and blocking ROS by anti-oxidant NAC rescued shikonin-induced cell death in both C6 and U87 glioma cells. Moreover, the expressional level of RIP-1 was up-regulated by shikonin in a dose and time dependent manner as well, but NAC suppressed RIP-1 expression.

Conclusions

We demonstrated that the cell death caused by shikonin in C6 and U87 glioma cells was mainly via necroptosis. Moreover, not only RIP-1 pathway, but also oxidative stress participated in the activation of shikonin induced necroptosis.