Molecular analysis of the methane monooxygenase (MMO) gene cluster of Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b

The oxidation of methane to methanol in methanotrophic bacteria is catalysed by the enzyme methane monooxygenase (MM0). This multicomponent enzyme catalyses a range of oxidations including that of aliphatic and aromatic compounds and therefore has potential for commercial exploitation. This study details the molecular characterization of the soluble MMO (sMMO) genes from the Type II methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. The structural genes encoding the alpha, beta and gamma subunits of sMMO protein A and the structural gene encoding component B have been isolated and sequenced. These genes have been expressed and their products identified using an in vitro system. A comparative analysis of sMMO predicted sequences of M. trichosporium OB3b and the taxonomically related M. capsulatus (Bath) is also presented.     

Soluble methane monooxygenase gene clusters from trichloroethylene-degrading Methylomonas sp. strains and detection of methanotrophs during in situ bioremediation

The soluble MMO (sMMO) gene clusters from group I methanotrophs were characterized. An 8.1-kb KpnI fragment from Methylomonas sp. strain KSWIII and a 7.5-kb SalI fragment from Methylomonas sp. strain KSPIII which contained the sMMO gene clusters were cloned and sequenced. The sequences of these two fragments were almost identical. The sMMO gene clusters in the fragment consisted of six open reading frames which were 52 to 79% similar to the corresponding genes of previously described sMMO gene clusters of the group II and group X methanotrophs. The phylogenetic analysis of the predicted amino acid sequences of sMMO demonstrated that the sMMOs from these strains were closer to that from M. capsulatus Bath in the group X methanotrophs than to those from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b and Methylocystis sp. strain M in the group II methanotrophs. Based on the sequence data of sMMO genes of our strains and other methanotrophs, we designed a new PCR primer to amplify sMMO gene fragments of all the known methanotrophs harboring the mmoX gene. The primer set was successfully used for detecting methanotrophs in the groundwater of trichloroethylene-contaminated sites during in situ-biostimulation treatments.     

Characterization of the methanotrophic bacterial community present in a trichloroethylene-contaminated subsurface groundwater site.

Groundwater, contaminated with trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE), was collected from 13 monitoring wells at Area M on the U.S. Department of Energy Savannah River Site near Aiken, S.C. Filtered groundwater samples were enriched with methane, leading to the isolation of 25 methanotrophic isolates. The phospholipid fatty acid profiles of all the isolates were dominated by 18:1 omega 8c (60 to 80%), a signature lipid for group II methanotrophs. Subsequent phenotypic testing showed that most of the strains were members of the genus Methylosinus and one isolate was a member of the genus Methylocystis. Most of the methanotroph isolates exhibited soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) activity. This was presumptively indicated by the naphthalene oxidation assay and confirmed by hybridization with a gene probe encoding the mmoB gene and by cell extract assays. TCE was degraded at various rates by most of the sMMO-producing isolates, whereas PCE was not degraded. Savannah River Area M and other groundwaters, pristine and polluted, were found to support sMMO activity when supplemented with nutrients and then inoculated with Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. The maximal sMMO-specific activity obtained in the various groundwaters ranged from 41 to 67% compared with maximal rates obtained in copper-free nitrate mineral salts media. This study partially supports the hypothesis that stimulation of indigenous methanotrophic communities can be efficacious for removal of chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons from subsurface sites and that the removal can be mediated by sMMO.     

Soluble methane monooxygenase component B gene probe for identification of methanotrophs that rapidly degrade trichloroethylene.

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms, Western blot (immunoblot) analysis, and fluorescence-labelled signature probes were used for the characterization of methanotrophic bacteria as well as for the identification of methanotrophs which contained the soluble methane monooxygenase (MMO) gene and were able to degrade trichloroethylene (TCE). The gene encoding a soluble MMO component B protein from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b was cloned. It contained a 2.2-kb EcoRI fragment. With this cloned component B gene as probe, methanotroph types I, II, and X and environmental and bioreactor samples were screened for the presence of the gene encoding soluble MMO. Fragments produced by digestion of DNA with rare cutting restriction endonucleases were separated by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and transferred to Zeta-Probe membrane (Bio-Rad) for Southern blot analysis. Samples were also analyzed for the presence of soluble MMO by Western blot analysis and the ability to degrade TCE. The physiological groups of methanotrophs in each sample were determined by hybridizing cells with fluorescence-labelled signature probes. Among twelve pure or mixed cultures, DNA fragments of seven methanotrophs hybridized with the soluble MMO B gene probe. When grown in media with limited copper, all of these bacteria degraded TCE. All of them are type II methanotrophs. The soluble MMO component B gene of the type X methanotroph, Methylococcus capsulatus Bath, did not hybridize to the M. trichosporium OB3b soluble MMO component B gene probe, although M. capsulatus Bath also produces a soluble MMO.     

Soluble methane monooxygenase component B gene probe for identification of methanotrophs that rapidly degrade trichloroethylene.

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms, Western blot (immunoblot) analysis, and fluorescence-labelled signature probes were used for the characterization of methanotrophic bacteria as well as for the identification of methanotrophs which contained the soluble methane monooxygenase (MMO) gene and were able to degrade trichloroethylene (TCE). The gene encoding a soluble MMO component B protein from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b was cloned. It contained a 2.2-kb EcoRI fragment. With this cloned component B gene as probe, methanotroph types I, II, and X and environmental and bioreactor samples were screened for the presence of the gene encoding soluble MMO. Fragments produced by digestion of DNA with rare cutting restriction endonucleases were separated by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and transferred to Zeta-Probe membrane (Bio-Rad) for Southern blot analysis. Samples were also analyzed for the presence of soluble MMO by Western blot analysis and the ability to degrade TCE. The physiological groups of methanotrophs in each sample were determined by hybridizing cells with fluorescence-labelled signature probes. Among twelve pure or mixed cultures, DNA fragments of seven methanotrophs hybridized with the soluble MMO B gene probe. When grown in media with limited copper, all of these bacteria degraded TCE. All of them are type II methanotrophs. The soluble MMO component B gene of the type X methanotroph, Methylococcus capsulatus Bath, did not hybridize to the M. trichosporium OB3b soluble MMO component B gene probe, although M. capsulatus Bath also produces a soluble MMO.     

Diversity of soluble methane monooxygenase-containing methanotrophs isolated from polluted environments

Methanotrophs were enriched and isolated from polluted environments in Canada and Germany. Enrichments in low copper media were designed to specifically encourage growth of soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) containing organisms. The 10 isolates were characterized physiologically and genetically with one type I and nine type II methanotrophs being identified. Three key genes: 16S rRNA; pmoA and mmoX, encoding for the particulate and soluble methane monooxygenases respectively, were cloned from the isolates and sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of these sequences identified strains, which were closely related to Methylococcus capsulatus, Methylocystis sp., Methylosinus sporium and Methylosinus trichosporium. Diversity of sMMO-containing methanotrophs detected in this and previous studies was rather narrow, both genetically and physiologically, suggesting possible constraints on genetic diversity of sMMO due to essential conservation of enzyme function.     

Biodegradation of trichloroethylene by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b.

The methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, a type II methanotroph, degraded trichloroethylene at rates exceeding 1.2 mmol/h per g (dry weight) following the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase in continuous and batch cultures. Cells capable oxidizing trichloroethylene contained components of soluble methane monooxygenase as demonstrated by Western blot (immunoblot) analysis with antibodies prepared against the purified enzyme. Growth of cultures in a medium containing 0.25 microM or less copper sulfate caused derepression of the synthesis of soluble methane monooxygenase. In these cultures, the specific rates of methane and methanol oxidation did not change during growth, while trichloroethylene oxidation increased with the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase. M. trichosporium OB3b cells that contained soluble methane monooxygenase also degraded vinyl chloride, 1,1-dichloroethylene, cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, and trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.     

Soluble Methane Monooxygenase Gene Clusters from Trichloroethylene-Degrading Methylomonas sp. Strains and Detection of Methanotrophs during In Situ Bioremediation

The soluble MMO (sMMO) gene clusters from group I methanotrophs were characterized. An 8.1-kb KpnI fragment from Methylomonas sp. strain KSWIII and a 7.5-kb SalI fragment from Methylomonas sp. strain KSPIII which contained the sMMO gene clusters were cloned and sequenced. The sequences of these two fragments were almost identical. The sMMO gene clusters in the fragment consisted of six open reading frames which were 52 to 79% similar to the corresponding genes of previously described sMMO gene clusters of the group II and group X methanotrophs. The phylogenetic analysis of the predicted amino acid sequences of sMMO demonstrated that the sMMOs from these strains were closer to that from M. capsulatus Bath in the group X methanotrophs than to those from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b and Methylocystis sp. strain M in the group II methanotrophs. Based on the sequence data of sMMO genes of our strains and other methanotrophs, we designed a new PCR primer to amplify sMMO gene fragments of all the known methanotrophs harboring the mmoX gene. The primer set was successfully used for detecting methanotrophs in the groundwater of trichloroethylene-contaminated sites during in situ-biostimulation treatments.     

Biodegradation of trichloroethylene by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b

The methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, a type II methanotroph, degraded trichloroethylene at rates exceeding 1.2 mmol/h per g (dry weight) following the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase in continuous and batch cultures. Cells capable oxidizing trichloroethylene contained components of soluble methane monooxygenase as demonstrated by Western blot (immunoblot) analysis with antibodies prepared against the purified enzyme. Growth of cultures in a medium containing 0.25 microM or less copper sulfate caused derepression of the synthesis of soluble methane monooxygenase. In these cultures, the specific rates of methane and methanol oxidation did not change during growth, while trichloroethylene oxidation increased with the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase. M. trichosporium OB3b cells that contained soluble methane monooxygenase also degraded vinyl chloride, 1,1-dichloroethylene, cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, and trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.     

一株Ⅱ型甲烷氧化菌中甲烷单加氧酶基因和16S rDNA的分析

[目的]利用分子生物学方法对-株甲烷氧化菌Methylosinus trichosporium IMV 3011中的16S rDNA和溶解性甲烷单加氧酶基因序列进行分析并探索其进化分类地位.[方法]利用基因数据库已有的基因序列信息,设计PCR扩增引物和基因测序引物,对溶解性甲烷单加氧酶基因和16s rDNA进行扩增和测序,并进行溶解性甲烷单加氧酶的6个基因和氨基酸序列与同类菌株的相应序列进行联配分析.[结果]获得了全长为5319 bp甲烷单加氧酶基因序列和长度为1290 bp的16S rDNA序列.该菌株与Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b中相对应基因的同一性是99.0%～82.7%,MMOX氨基酸序列的同一性为99.4%～81.8%,相似性为99.8%～89.2%.基于以上分析表明MMOX组分有很高的序列保守性,特别是在活性中心区域.[结论]菌株IMV3011属于甲基弯菌属,最近似的菌株是Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b.     

Genome sequence of the obligate methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium strain OB3b

Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b (for "oddball" strain 3b) is an obligate aerobic methane-oxidizing alphaproteobacterium that was originally isolated in 1970 by Roger Whittenbury and colleagues. This strain has since been used extensively to elucidate the structure and function of several key enzymes of methane oxidation, including both particulate and soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) and the extracellular copper chelator methanobactin. In particular, the catalytic properties of soluble methane monooxygenase from M. trichosporium OB3b have been well characterized in context with biodegradation of recalcitrant hydrocarbons, such as trichloroethylene. The sequence of the M. trichosporium OB3b genome is the first reported from a member of the Methylocystaceae family in the order Rhizobiales.     

Trichloroethylene and chloroform degradation by a recombinant pseudomonad expressing soluble methane monooxygenase from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b.

Soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b can degrade many halogenated aliphatic compounds that are found in contaminated soil and groundwater. This enzyme oxidizes the most frequently detected pollutant, trichloroethylene (TCE), at least 50 times faster than other enzymes. However, slow growth of the strain, strong competition between TCE and methane for sMMO, and repression of the smmo locus by low concentrations of copper ions limit the use of this bacterium. To overcome these obstacles, the 5.5-kb smmo locus of M. trichosporium OB3b was cloned into a wide-host-range vector (to form pSMMO20), and this plasmid was electroporated into five Pseudomonas strains. The best TCE degradation results were obtained with Pseudomonas putida F1/pSMMO20. The plasmid was maintained stably, and all five of the sMMO proteins (alpha, beta, and gamma hydroxylase proteins, reductase, and component B) were observed clearly by both sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and Western immunoblotting. TCE degradation rates were quantified for P. putida F1/pSMMO20 with a gas chromatograph (Vmax = 5 nmol per min per mg of protein), and the recombinant strain mineralized 55% of the TCE (10 microM) as indicated by measuring chloride ion concentrations with a chloride ion-specific electrode. The maximum TCE degradation rate obtained with the recombinant strain was lower than that of M. trichosporium OB3b but greater than other TCE-degrading recombinants and most well-studied pseudomonads. In addition, this recombinant strain mineralizes chloroform (a specific substrate for sMMO), grows much faster than M. trichosporium OB3b, and degrades TCE without competitive inhibition from the growth substrate.     

Crystal structure and characterization of particulate methane monooxygenase from Methylocystis species strain M

Particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) is an integral membrane metalloenzyme that oxidizes methane to methanol in methanotrophic bacteria. Previous biochemical and structural studies of pMMO have focused on preparations from Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) and Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. A pMMO from a third organism, Methylocystis species strain M, has been isolated and characterized. Both membrane-bound and solubilized Methylocystis sp. strain M pMMO contain ~2 copper ions per 100 kDa protomer and exhibit copper-dependent propylene epoxidation activity. Spectroscopic data indicate that Methylocystis sp. strain M pMMO contains a mixture of Cu(I) and Cu(II), of which the latter exhibits two distinct type 2 Cu(II) electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) signals. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data are best fit with a mixture of Cu-O/N and Cu-Cu ligand environments with a Cu-Cu interaction at 2.52-2.64 ?. The crystal structure of Methylocystis sp. strain M pMMO was determined to 2.68 ? resolution and is the best quality pMMO structure obtained to date. It provides a revised model for the pmoA and pmoC subunits and has led to an improved model of M. capsulatus (Bath) pMMO. In these new structures, the intramembrane zinc/copper binding site has a different coordination environment from that in previous models.     

Methanobactin from Methylocystis sp. Strain SB2 Affects Gene Expression and Methane Monooxygenase Activity in Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b

Methanotrophs can express a cytoplasmic (soluble) methane monooxygenase (sMMO) or membrane-bound (particulate) methane monooxygenase (pMMO). Expression of these MMOs is strongly regulated by the availability of copper. Many methanotrophs have been found to synthesize a novel compound, methanobactin (Mb), that is responsible for the uptake of copper, and methanobactin produced by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b plays a key role in controlling expression of MMO genes in this strain. As all known forms of methanobactin are structurally similar, it was hypothesized that methanobactin from one methanotroph may alter gene expression in another. When Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b was grown in the presence of 1 μM CuCl₂, expression of mmoX, encoding a subunit of the hydroxylase component of sMMO, was very low. mmoX expression increased, however, when methanobactin from Methylocystis sp. strain SB2 (SB2-Mb) was added, as did whole-cell sMMO activity, but there was no significant change in the amount of copper associated with M. trichosporium OB3b. If M. trichosporium OB3b was grown in the absence of CuCl₂, the mmoX expression level was high but decreased by several orders of magnitude if copper prebound to SB2-Mb (Cu-SB2-Mb) was added, and biomass-associated copper was increased. Exposure of Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b to SB2-Mb had no effect on expression of mbnA, encoding the polypeptide precursor of methanobactin in either the presence or absence of CuCl₂. mbnA expression, however, was reduced when Cu-SB2-Mb was added in both the absence and presence of CuCl₂. These data suggest that methanobactin acts as a general signaling molecule in methanotrophs and that methanobactin “piracy” may be commonplace.     

Soluble Methane Monooxygenase Production and Trichloroethylene Degradation by a Type I Methanotroph, Methylomonas methanica 68-1

A methanotroph (strain 68-1), originally isolated from a trichloroethylene (TCE)-contaminated aquifer, was identified as the type I methanotroph Methylomonas methanica on the basis of intracytoplasmic membrane ultrastructure, phospholipid fatty acid profile, and 16S rRNA signature probe hybridization. Strain 68-1 was found to oxidize naphthalene and TCE via a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) and thus becomes the first type I methanotroph known to be able to produce this enzyme. The specific whole-cell sMMO activity of 68-1, as measured by the naphthalene oxidation assay and by TCE biodegradation, was comparatively higher than sMMO activity levels in Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b grown in the same copper-free conditions. The maximal naphthalene oxidation rates of Methylomonas methanica 68-1 and Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b were 551 ± 27 and 321 ± 16 nmol h^-1 mg of protein ^-1, respectively. The maximal TCE degradation rates of Methylomonas methanica 68-1 and Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b were 2,325 ± 260 and 995 ± 160 nmol h^-1 mg of protein^-1, respectively. The substrate affinity of 68-1 sMMO to naphthalene (K_m, 70 ± 4 μM) and TCE (K_m, 225 ± 13 μM), however, was comparatively lower than that of the sMMO of OB3b, which had affinities of 40 ± 3 and 126 ± 8 μM, respectively. Genomic DNA slot and Southern blot analyses with an sMMO gene probe from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b showed that the sMMO genes of 68-1 have little genetic homology to those of OB3b. This result may indicate the evolutionary diversification of the sMMOs.     

Diversity of oxygenase genes from methane- and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in the Eastern Snake River Plain aquifer

PCR amplification, restriction fragment length polymorphism, and phylogenetic analysis of oxygenase genes were used for the characterization of in situ methane- and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria from free-living and attached communities in the Eastern Snake River Plain aquifer. The following three methane monooxygenase (MMO) PCR primer sets were used: A189-A682, which amplifies an internal region of both the pmoA gene of the MMO particulate form and the amoA gene of ammonia monooxygenase; A189-mb661, which specifically targets the pmoA gene; and mmoXA-mmoXB, which amplifies the mmoX gene of the MMO soluble form (sMMO). Whole-genome amplification (WGA) was used to amplify metagenomic DNA from each community to assess its applicability for generating unbiased metagenomic template DNA. The majority of sequences in each archive were related to oxygenases of type II-like methanotrophs of the genus Methylocystis. A small subset of type I sequences found only in free-living communities possessed oxygenase genes that grouped nearest to Methylobacter and Methylomonas spp. Sequences similar to that of the amoA gene associated with ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) most closely matched a sequence from the uncultured bacterium BS870 but showed no substantial alignment to known cultured AOB. Based on these functional gene analyses, bacteria related to the type II methanotroph Methylocystis sp. were found to dominate both free-living and attached communities. Metagenomic DNA amplified by WGA showed characteristics similar to those of unamplified samples. Overall, numerous sMMO-like gene sequences that have been previously associated with high rates of trichloroethylene cometabolism were observed in both free-living and attached communities in this basaltic aquifer.