GRP94的功能及其与肿瘤的相关性

葡萄糖调节蛋白94（gloucose requlated protein 94,GRP94）是HSP90家族的成员,主要定位于内质网中.GRP94作为分子伴侣参与蛋白质的折叠、转运和分泌外,还参与了细胞凋亡以及抗原的提呈.GRP94与肿瘤的发生以及进展密切相关,肿瘤的分化程度越低,GRP94的表达也越高.GRP94又可将肿瘤特异性抗原提呈给专业提呈细胞启动特异性的免疫反应.GRP94在肿瘤的发生及转归中发挥了重要的作用.     

内质网应激

内质网应激表现为内质网腔内错误折叠与未折叠蛋白聚集以及Ca^2 平衡紊乱,可激活未折叠蛋白反应、内质网超负荷反应和caspase-12介导的凋亡通路等信号途径,既能诱导糖调节蛋白(glucose-regulated protein 78kD,GRP78)、GRP94等内质网分子伴侣表达而产生保护效应,亦能独立地诱导细胞凋亡。内质网应激直接影响应激细胞的转归,如适应、损伤或凋亡。     

内质网应激与急性肺损伤的研究进展

正内质网应激(endoplasmic reticulum stress,ERs)表现为内质网腔内错误折叠与未折叠蛋白聚集以及钙离子平衡紊乱,可激活未折叠蛋白反应、内质网超负荷反应和caspase-12介导的凋亡通路等信号途径,既能诱导葡萄糖调节蛋白78(glucose regulated protein 78kD,GRP78)、GRP94等内质网分子伴侣表达而产生保护效应,亦能独立诱导细胞凋亡。内质网应激直接影响应激细胞的转归,如适应、损伤或凋亡。急性肺损伤(acute lung injury,ALI)是在严重感染、休克、创伤及烧伤等非心源性疾病过程中,肺毛细血管内皮细胞和肺     

葡萄糖调节蛋白78研究进展

葡萄糖调节蛋白78（glucose regulated protein 78kD,GRP78）又称免疫球蛋白重链结合蛋白（immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein,Bip）,是位于内质网上重要的分子伴侣,属热休克蛋白70家族的一员,GRP78分子及其DNA分子序列结构在许多生物物种中高度保守。GRP78在内质网中参与阻止内质网新生肽聚集、调节内质网钙稳态、抗内质网相关性细胞凋亡,以及启动未折叠蛋白反应等细胞生命过程。GRP78基因启动子上存在内质网应激反应元件（ERSE）和cAMP反应元件（CRE）等特殊的顺式作用元件,特异性转录因子ATF6等与GRP78启魂子上顺式作用元件发生动态结合,从而调节GRP78基础性或诱导性转录表达。近年来发现,GRP78与脂肪肝、肿瘤和神经系统等疾病的发生发展密切相关,GRP78生物学功能的研究已经引起生物学家们的广泛重视。     

GRP78在肿瘤发生发展及干性形成中的研究进展

葡萄糖调节蛋白78(GRP78)长期以来一直被公认是存在于内质网(ER)中的分子伴侣,并可被内质网应激反应所诱导。除了在内质网中,GRP78已经被发现存在于细胞质膜、细胞质、线粒体、细胞核以及细胞分泌物中。GRP78的高表达通常与多种肿瘤微环境,包括缺氧、缺糖、乳酸性酸中毒和炎症反应相关,是一个可以感受和适应肿瘤微环境变化的应激感受器。GRP78与肿瘤细胞的增殖、抗凋亡、侵袭和转移以及耐药性有关,近年来还发现其与肿瘤干细胞的调节有关。本文分别就GRP78在肿瘤细胞生长和死亡抵抗、侵袭和转移、耐药性形成中的作用,GRP78和Cripto/GRP78信号通路在肿瘤干细胞的调节中的作用,以及GRP78抗体的研究进展作简要综述。     

葡萄糖调节蛋白78研究进展

葡萄糖调节蛋白78(glucose regulated protein 78kD, GRP78)又称免疫球蛋白重链结合蛋白(immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein, Bip),是位于内质网上重要的分子伴侣,属热休克蛋白70家族的一员,GRP78分子及其DNA分子序列结构在许多生物物种中高度保守.GRP78在内质网中参与阻止内质网新生肽聚集、调节内质网钙稳态、抗内质网相关性细胞凋亡,以及启动未折叠蛋白反应等细胞生命过程.GRP78基因启动子上存在内质网应激反应元件(ERSE)和cAMP反应元件(CRE)等特殊的顺式作用元件,特异性转录因子ATF6等与GRP78启动子上顺式作用元件发生动态结合,从而调节GRP78基础性或诱导性转录表达.近年来发现,GRP78与脂肪肝、肿瘤和神经系统等疾病的发生发展密切相关,GRP78生物学功能的研究已经引起生物学家们的广泛重视.     

未折叠蛋白反应的信号转导

在内质网中,分泌性蛋白、跨膜蛋白和内质网驻留蛋白折叠成天然构象,经过修饰后,形成有活性的功能性蛋白质。如果蛋白质在内质网内的折叠受到抑制,造成未折叠蛋白聚集,将引起内质网应激。激活未折叠蛋白反应（unfolded protein response,UPR）,使蛋白质的生物合成减少,内质网的降解功能增强,从而降低内质网负担,维持细胞内的稳态。如果内质网应激持续存在,则可能诱发细胞凋亡。研究表明,未折叠蛋白反应能在多种肿瘤细胞中发生,并能促进肿瘤细胞的生长。本文对未折叠蛋白反应与肿瘤研究的最新进展进行综述。     

黄芪总黄酮对柯萨奇B3病毒感染乳鼠心肌细胞内质网应激及Calumenin蛋白和缝隙连接蛋白CX43的作用

目的:研究黄芪总黄酮对柯萨奇B3病毒(CVB3)感染心肌细胞内质网应激、网腔钙结合蛋白(calumenin)及缝隙连接蛋白43(CX43)作用。方法:原代培养的乳鼠心肌细胞分3组:对照组(正常细胞)、柯萨奇病毒感染组(正常细胞)、黄芪总黄酮组(正常细胞+黄芪总黄酮)。柯萨奇病毒感染组感染,黄芪总黄酮组感染同时给予黄芪总黄酮20 mg/L。采用免疫组化方法检测培养乳鼠心肌细胞α-SMA蛋白,Western blot技术检测各组心肌细胞Calumenin蛋白及内质网应激伴侣蛋白GRP78,CX43表达。结果:1与对照组相比,柯萨奇病毒感染组心肌细胞GRP78表达增多(P0.01),calumenin蛋白及CX43表达减少(P0.01);与柯萨奇病毒感染组比较,黄芪总黄酮组心肌细胞GRP78表达减少(P0.01),Calumenin蛋白及CX43表达增多(P0.01)。结论:CVB3可引发心肌细胞内质网伴侣蛋白GRP78表达增加进而发生内质网应激,并使Calumenin蛋白及CX43表达减少;黄芪总黄酮抑制CVB3感染心肌细胞内质网应激伴侣蛋白GRP78表达从而减轻内质网应激,同时使Calumenin蛋白及CX43表达增多,该实验结果可能与其抗病毒性心肌炎并发心律失常作用密切相关。     

皮质酮诱导小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞发生内质网应激的作用

目的:观察内源性糖皮质激素皮质酮对小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞内质网应激相关蛋白GRP78、XBP1-S及ATF6蛋白表达水平的影响,并探讨皮质酮诱导小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞内质网应激的作用.方法:分离成年雄性C57/BL6小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞,随机分为四组,分别以终浓度为0、10、50及1000 ng/ml皮质酮处理小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞,时间为1h,提取细胞总蛋白,应用Western blotting方法检测内质网分子伴侣GRP78蛋白及未折叠蛋白反应信号转导通路转录因子XBP1-S和ATF6蛋白质表达变化.结果:低浓度皮质酮(10、50ng/ml)处理小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞1h后,均可显著地增加内质网分子伴侣GRP78蛋白表达,以50ng/ml皮质酮组增加最明显,而当皮质酮浓度达1000ng/ml时,GRP78蛋白增加不显著.并且,低浓度皮质酮(10、50ng/ml)可显著增强未折叠蛋白反应两个重要转录因子XBP1-S和p50 ATF6蛋白表达.结论:这些结果表明低浓度内源性糖皮质激素皮质酮可诱发小鼠腹腔巨噬细胞发生内质网应激,激活未折叠蛋白质反应信号转导通路,其可能与巨噬细胞免疫功能增强有关.     

分子伴侣GRP94在创伤后应激障碍大鼠前额内侧皮质表达变化及其意义

目的检测创伤后应激障碍（Post-traumatic stressdisorder,PTSD）连续单一刺激（single prolonged stress,SPS）模型大鼠前额内侧皮质（medial prefrontal cortex,mPFC）分子伴侣葡萄糖调节蛋白94（Glucose-regulated protein,GRP94）的表达变化,探讨PTSD发病机制过程中存在未折叠蛋白反应（unfolded protein reaction,UPR）的激活及GRP94在UPR中的作用机制及意义。方法健康,雄性,成年Wistar大鼠60只,建立国际认定的PTSD-SPS模型,随机分为正常对照组和模型组,模型组大鼠分别于1d、4d、7d取材。应用免疫组化、蛋白印迹和RT-PCR方法检测PTSD大鼠mPFC神经元GRP94表达变化。结果免疫组化、蛋白印迹和RT-PCR方法均显示,给予SPS刺激后大鼠GRP94的蛋白表达及GRP94mRNA表达均高于正常组（P〈O．05）,7d达到顶峰。结论分子伴侣GRP94表达发生变化,提示SPS刺激后大鼠mPFC神经元出现未折叠蛋白反应的激活,PTSD的发生过程中GRP94参与了未折叠蛋白反应,对揭示PTSD致脑损伤的发病机制具有重要意义。     

Chaperone insufficiency links TLR4 protein signaling to endoplasmic reticulum stress

Inflammation plays an important pathogenic role in a number of metabolic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and atherosclerosis. The activation of inflammation in these diseases depends at least in part on the combined actions of TLR4 signaling and endoplasmic reticulum stress, which by acting in concert can boost the inflammatory response. Defining the mechanisms involved in this phenomenon may unveil potential targets for the treatment of metabolic/inflammatory diseases. Here we used LPS to induce endoplasmic reticulum stress in the human monocyte cell-line, THP-1. The unfolded protein response, produced after LPS, was dependent on CD14 activity but not on RNA-dependent protein kinase and could be inhibited by an exogenous chemical chaperone. The induction of the endoplasmic reticulum resident chaperones, GRP94 and GRP78, by LPS was of a much lower magnitude than the effect of LPS on TLR4 and MD-2 expression. In face of this apparent insufficiency of chaperone expression, we induced the expression of GRP94 and GRP78 by glucose deprivation. This approach completely reverted endoplasmic reticulum stress. The inhibition of either GRP94 or GRP78 with siRNA was sufficient to rescue the protective effect of glucose deprivation on LPS-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress. Thus, insufficient LPS-induced chaperone expression links TLR4 signaling to endoplasmic reticulum stress.     

GRP94 is essential for mesoderm induction and muscle development because it regulates insulin-like growth factor secretion

Because only few of its client proteins are known, the physiological roles of the endoplasmic reticulum chaperone glucose-regulated protein 94 (GRP94) are poorly understood. Using targeted disruption of the murine GRP94 gene, we show that it has essential functions in embryonic development. grp94-/- embryos die on day 7 of gestation, fail to develop mesoderm, primitive streak, or proamniotic cavity. grp94-/- ES cells grow in culture and are capable of differentiation into cells representing all three germ layers. However, these cells do not differentiate into cardiac, smooth, or skeletal muscle. Differentiation cultures of mutant ES cells are deficient in secretion of insulin-like growth factor II and their defect can be complemented with exogenous insulin-like growth factors I or II. The data identify insulin-like growth factor II as one developmentally important protein whose production depends on the activity of GRP94.     

黄芪注射液对网腔钙结合蛋白基因沉默阿霉素损伤心肌细胞内质网应激伴侣蛋白GRP78,GRP94 mRNA的作用

目的：研究黄芪注射液对网腔钙结合蛋白（calumenin）基因沉默阿霉素损伤心肌细胞内质网应激伴侣蛋白GRP78,GRP94 mRNA的作用。方法：实验将体外培养的1~3 d乳鼠心肌细胞分为5组：对照组、模型组（正常细胞+3 mg/L阿霉素）、calumenin基因沉默模型组（慢病毒感染细胞+3 mg/L阿霉素）、黄芪组1（正常细胞+3 mg/L阿霉素+200 g/L黄芪）、黄芪组2（慢病毒感染细胞+3 mg/L阿霉素+200 g/L黄芪）。构建慢病毒-calumenin质粒,转染乳鼠培养心肌细胞,采用实时荧光定量分析（real-time PCR）检测各组心肌细胞calumenin及内质网应激伴侣蛋白GRP78、GRP94 mRNA表达。结果：①与对照组比较,模型组心肌细胞calumenin mRNA表达减少（P<0.05）,而calumenin基因沉默模型组及黄芪组2心肌细胞calumenin mRNA表达明显减少（P<0.01）;与模型组比较,黄芪组1心肌细胞calumenin mRNA表达增加（P<0.05）;与calumenin基因沉默模型组比较,黄芪组2心肌细胞calumenin mRNA表达明显增加（P<0.01）。②与对照组相比较,模型组及calumenin基因沉默模型组心肌细胞内质网应激伴侣蛋白GRP78、GRP94 mRNA表达明显增多（P<0.01）;与模型组比较,黄芪组1心肌细胞GRP78、GRP94 mRNA表达明显减少（P<0.01）;与calumenin基因沉默模型组比较,黄芪组2心肌细胞内质网应激伴侣蛋白GRP78、GRP94 mRNA表达明显减少（P<0.01）。结论：①阿霉素损伤可引起心肌细胞calumenin表达减少。②Calumenin可缓解阿霉素损伤所诱导心肌细胞内质网应激。黄芪注射液可抑制阿霉素损伤所诱导心肌细胞内质网应激,这种作用可能系通过calumenin介导实现的。     

The endoplasmic reticulum stress protein GRP94, in addition to BiP, associates with unassembled immunoglobulin chains.

The molecular chaperone BiP/GRP78 associates with various polypeptides in the endoplasmic reticulum, including immunoglobulin chains. We now show, using chemical cross-linking, that another endoplasmic reticulum stress protein, GRP94, associates with newly synthesized immunoglobulin light and heavy chains. We demonstrate the presence of ternary complexes composed of immunoglobulin chains, BiP and GRP94. Because both BiP and GRP94 associate far less with fully assembled immunoglobulin than with unassembled subunits, our data suggest that GRP94, like BiP, functions as a molecular chaperone. The presence of both BiP and GRP94 in the same complex further suggests that the two stress proteins work in concert during the folding and assembly of immunoglobulins.     

Novel mechanism of anti-apoptotic function of 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78): endocrine resistance factor in breast cancer, through release of B-cell lymphoma 2 (BCL-2) from BCL-2-interacting killer (BIK)

Activation of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway represents a major mechanism for breast cancer regression resulting from anti-estrogen therapy. The BH3-only protein BIK is inducible by estrogen-starvation and anti-estrogen treatment and plays an important role in anti-estrogen induced apoptosis of breast cancer cells. BIK is predominantly localized to the endoplasmic reticulum where it regulates BAX/BAK-dependent release of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum stores and cooperates with other BH3-only proteins such as NOXA to cause rapid release of cytochrome c from mitochondria and activate apoptosis. BIK is also known to inactivate BCL-2 through complex formation. Previously, we demonstrated that apoptosis triggered by BIK in estrogen-starved human breast cancer cells is suppressed by GRP78, a major endoplasmic reticulum chaperone. Here we described the isolation of a novel clonal human breast cancer cell line (MCF-7/BUS-10) resistant to long-term estrogen deprivation. These cells exhibit elevated level of GRP78, which protects them from estrogen starvation-induced apoptosis. Our studies revealed that overexpression of GRP78 suppresses apoptosis induced by BIK and NOXA, either alone or in combination. Surprisingly, the interaction of GRP78 with BIK does not require its BH3 domain, which has been implicated in all previous BIK protein interactions. We further showed GRP78 and BCL-2 form independent complex with BIK and that increased expression of GRP78 decreases BIK binding to BCL-2. Our findings provide the first evidence that GRP78 can decrease BCL-2 sequestration by BIK at the endoplasmic reticulum, thus uncovering a potential new mechanism whereby GRP78 confers endocrine resistance in breast cancer.     

GRP94 hyperglycosylation and phosphorylation in Sf21 cells

GRP94 is an inducible resident endoplasmic reticulum/sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER/SR) glycoprotein that functions as a protein chaperone and Ca(2+) regulator. GRP94 has been reported to be a substrate for protein kinase CK2 in vitro, although its phosphorylation in intact cells remains unreported. In Sf21 insect cells, overexpression of canine GRP94 led to the appearance of a multiplet of three or more molecular-mass isoforms which was reduced to a single mobility form following treatment of cells with tunicamycin, suggesting stable accumulations of consecutively modified protein. Metabolic labeling of Sf21 cells with (32)P(i) led to a constitutive phosphorylation of GRP94 which, based upon phosphopeptide mapping, occurred specifically on CK2-sensitive sites. Among the GRP94 multiplet, however, only the lowest mobility form of GRP94 was phosphorylated, even though in vitro phosphorylation of GRP94 by CK2 led to phosphorylation of all glycosylated forms. The (32)P(i) incorporation into GRP94 indicated a slow turnover of phosphate incorporation that was unaffected by inhibition of biosynthesis, resulting in a steady-state level of phospho-GRP94 on CK2 sites. These data support a role for protein kinase CK2 in the cell biology for GRP94 and other resident ER/SR proteins that may occur in ER compartments.     

Overexpression of GRP94 in breast cancer cells resistant to oxidative stress promotes high levels of cancer cell proliferation and migration: implications for tumor recurrence

Targeting the altered redox status of cancer cells is emerging as an interesting approach to potentiate chemotherapy. However, to maximize the effectiveness of this strategy and define the correct chemotherapeutic associations, it is important to understand the biological consequences of chronically exposing cancer cells to reactive oxygen species (ROS). Using an H(2)O(2)-generating system, we selected a ROS-resistant MCF-7 breast cancer cell line, namely Resox cells. By exploring different survival pathways that are usually induced during oxidative stress, we identified a constitutive overexpression of the endoplasmic reticulum chaperone, GRP94, in these cells, whereas levels of its cytoplasmic homolog HSP90, or GRP78, were not modified. This overexpression was not mediated by constitutive unfolded protein response (UPR) activation. The increase in GRP94 is tightly linked to an increase in cell proliferation and migration capacities, as shown by GRP94-silencing experiments. Interestingly, we also observed that GRP94 silencing inhibits migration and proliferation of the highly aggressive MDA-MB-231 cells. By immunohistochemistry, we showed that GRP94 expression was higher in recurrent human breast cancers than in their paired primary neoplasias. Similar to the situation in the Resox cells, this increase was not associated with an increase in UPR activation in recurrent tumors. In conclusion, this study suggests that GRP94 overexpression may be a hallmark of aggressiveness and recurrence in breast cancers.     

Glucose regulated protein 78: A critical link between tumor microenvironment and cancer hallmarks

Glucose regulated protein 78 (GRP78) has long been recognized as a molecular chaperone in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and can be induced by the ER stress response. Besides its location in the ER, GRP78 has been found to be present in cell plasma membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, nucleus as well as cellular secretions. GRP78 is implicated in tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis resistance, immune escape, metastasis and angiogenesis, and its elevated expression usually correlates with a variety of tumor microenvironmental stresses, including hypoxia, glucose deprivation, lactic acidosis and inflammatory response. GRP78 protein acts as a centrally located sensor of stress, which feels and adapts to the alteration in the tumor microenvironment. This article reviews the potential contributions of GRP78 to the acquisition of cancer hallmarks based on intervening in stress responses caused by tumor niche alterations. The paper also introduces several potential GRP78 relevant targeted therapies.     

GRP94: An HSP90-like protein specialized for protein folding and quality control in the endoplasmic reticulum

Glucose-regulated protein 94 is the HSP90-like protein in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum and therefore it chaperones secreted and membrane proteins. It has essential functions in development and physiology of multicellular organisms, at least in part because of this unique clientele. GRP94 shares many biochemical features with other HSP90 proteins, in particular its domain structure and ATPase activity, but also displays distinct activities, such as calcium binding, necessitated by the conditions in the endoplasmic reticulum. GRP94's mode of action varies from the general HSP90 theme in the conformational changes induced by nucleotide binding, and in its interactions with co-chaperones, which are very different from known cytosolic co-chaperones. GRP94 is more selective than many of the ER chaperones and the basis for this selectivity remains obscure. Recent development of molecular tools and functional assays has expanded the spectrum of clients that rely on GRP94 activity, but it is still not clear how the chaperone binds them, or what aspect of folding it impacts. These mechanistic questions and the regulation of GRP94 activity by other proteins and by post-translational modification differences pose new questions and present future research avenues. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Heat Shock Protein 90 (HSP90).