基于CVM的山东海洋保护区生态系统多样性维持服务价值评估

选取山东济南(代表内陆城市)和青岛(代表沿海城市),基于条件价值法(CVM),对两市城镇居民进行问卷调查,通过建立支付意愿多元线性回归方程用以评估山东省城镇居民对维持山东88个海洋保护区永续存在的支付意愿,进而估算山东海洋保护区的生态系统多样性维持服务价值。研究发现,人均年收入较高,支付意愿较大;文化程度较低,支付意愿较小;男性比女性的支付意愿高;内陆城镇居民对于海洋保护区的人均支付意愿为102.15元,比沿海城镇居民的支付意愿高23.05元。2014年,山东全部88个海洋保护区的生态系统多样性维持服务价值为43.7亿元,平均0.497亿元/个。其中,12个自然保护区的价值为16.14亿元,平均1.35亿元/个;30个海洋特别保护区的价值为14.47亿元,平均0.489亿元/个;46个水产种质资源保护区的价值为12.9亿元,平均0.28亿元/个。结果表明:海洋自然保护区的生态系统多样性维持服务价值比海洋特别保护区和水产种质资源保护区高。在修订我国各类保护区的选划标准和管理目标时,应增加生态系统多样性维持服务价值并作为关键的选划指标。具有最高生态系统多样性维持服务价值的海域,宜选划为自然保护区,实施最严格的管理措施,确保其生态系统多样性维持服务价值增加,至少不降低。具有较高生态系统多样性维持服务价值的海域,因地制宜选划为海洋特别保护区或者海洋水产种质资源保护区,实施较严格的管理措施,确保其生态系统多样性维持服务价值不降低。     

Measuring conservation success with missing Marine Protected Area boundaries: A case study in the Coral Triangle

The on-going loss of biodiversity calls for assessing the performance of conservation strategies. In the case of marine protected areas (MPAs), a common indicator of success is the amount of biodiversity protected within them. However, there are many cases where the information for the official MPA boundary is not available, making it difficult to precisely measure the indicator. A solution to this problem is to create circular buffers around the centre location of MPAs for which boundaries are missing, equivalent in area to that reported officially for the MPA. The Coral Triangle Atlas provides the opportunity to quantify more precisely the validity of using buffers as proxies for MPA boundaries both at national and regional scales in the Coral Triangle. We used 612 existing MPA boundaries, converted them into point data at their centroids and then created circular buffers of area equal to that of the MPAs’ original polygons. Errors in estimated area of protected coral reefs were used to measure the bias created by the centroid buffers. We obtained an underestimation of protected coral reef area, both at the scale of the Coral Triangle region and at a national scale when using centroid buffers, with a larger underestimation as more MPA boundary proxies were used. We found that the size of MPA does not have a significant effect on the percentage of bias when MPAs are smaller than 100 km² at a national level, and smaller than 1000 km² at a regional level. With less than 15% of the total MPAs in the CT region larger than 100 km², these results suggest that using buffers at a national scale for small MPAs may be a good solution to missing boundaries and cheaper than trying to collect exact information if working at a national or multinational scale. However, for countries with large MPAs such as Indonesia, using this proxy system will tend to create a larger error. At a regional scale, such as the Coral Triangle region, an estimation of total protected coral reef using buffers as MPA boundaries proxies will produce a small underestimation, thus, producing conservative results of protected coral reef area. This study shows the importance of assessing the bias introduced by using proxies for MPA boundaries when measuring indicators of conservation target achievement for coastal and marine areas.     

Predation Risk within Fishing Gear and Implications for South Australian Rock Lobster Fisheries

Depredation of southern rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) within fishing gear by the Maori octopus (Pinnoctopus cordiformis) has economic and ecological impacts on valuable fisheries in South Australia. In addition, depredation rates can be highly variable resulting in uncertainties for the fishery. We examined how in-pot lobster predation was influenced by factors such as lobster size and sex, season, fishing zone, and catch rate. Using mixed modelling techniques, we found that in-pot predation risk increased with lobster size and was higher for male lobsters. In addition, the effect of catch rate of lobsters on predation risk by octopus differed among fishing zones. There was both a seasonal and a spatial component to octopus predation, with an increased risk within discrete fishing grounds in South Australia at certain times of the year. Information about predation within lobster gear can assist fishery management decision-making, potentially leading to significant reduction in economic losses to the fishery.     

Sampling mobile oceanic fishes and sharks: implications for fisheries and conservation planning

Tuna, billfish, and oceanic sharks [hereafter referred to as ‘mobile oceanic fishes and sharks’ (MOFS)] are characterised by conservative life‐history strategies and highly migratory behaviour across large, transnational ranges. Intense exploitation over the past 65 years by a rapidly expanding high‐seas fishing fleet has left many populations depleted, with consequences at the ecosystem level due to top‐down control and trophic cascades. Despite increases in both CITES and IUCN Red Listings, the demographic trajectories of oceanic sharks and billfish are poorly quantified and resolved at geographic and population levels. Amongst MOFS trajectories, those of tunas are generally considered better understood, yet several populations remain either overfished or of unknown status. MOFS population trends and declines therefore remain contentious, partly due to challenges in deriving accurate abundance and biomass indices. Two major management strategies are currently recognised to address conservation issues surrounding MOFS: (i) internationally ratified legal frameworks and their associated regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs); and (ii) spatio‐temporal fishery closures, including no‐take marine protected areas (MPAs). In this context, we first review fishery‐dependent studies relying on data derived from catch records and from material accessible through fishing extraction, under the umbrella of RFMO‐administrated management. Challenges in interpreting catch statistics notwithstanding, we find that fishery‐dependent studies have enhanced the accuracy of biomass indices and the management strategies they inform, by addressing biases in reporting and non‐random effort, and predicting drivers of spatial variability across meso‐ and oceanic scales in order to inform stock assessments. By contrast and motivated by the increase in global MPA coverage restricting extractive activities, we then detail ways in which fishery‐independent methods are increasingly improving and steering management by exploring facets of MOFS ecology thus far poorly grasped. Advances in telemetry are increasingly used to explore ontogenic and seasonal movements, and provide means to consider MOFS migration corridors and residency patterns. The characterisation of trophic relationships and prey distribution through biochemical analysis and hydro‐acoustics surveys has enabled the tracking of dietary shifts and mapping of high‐quality foraging grounds. We conclude that while a scientific framework is available to inform initial design and subsequent implementation of MPAs, there is a shortage in the capacity to answer basic but critical questions about MOFS ecology (who, when, where?) required to track populations non‐extractively, thereby presenting a barrier to assessing empirically the performance of MPA‐based management for MOFS. This sampling gap is exacerbated by the increased establishment of large (>10000 km²) and very large MPAs (VLMPAs, >100000 km²) ‐ great expanses of ocean lacking effective monitoring strategies and survey regimes appropriate to those scales. To address this shortcoming, we demonstrate the use of a non‐extractive protocol to measure MOFS population recovery and MPA efficiency. We further identify technological avenues for monitoring at the VLMPA scale, through the use of spotter planes, drones, satellite technology, and horizontal acoustics, and highlight their relevance to the ecosystem‐based framework of MOFS management.     

Changes in invertebrate and macroalgal populations in Tasmanian marine reserves in the decade following protection

Densities of macrobenthic invertebrates and macro-algae in four Tasmanian ‘no-take’ marine protected areas (MPAs) were monitored annually for 10 years following MPA establishment, with changes compared to those at external (fished) reference locations. Fishing substantially influenced the population characteristics of many species, including altering the mean size and abundance of rock lobsters and the abundance of prey species such as urchins and abalone. Strong declines in abundances of purple urchins and abalone within the largest MPA at Maria Island indicate likely indirect effects related to protection of predators from fishing. The two smallest MPAs (ca. 1 km coastal span) generated few detectable changes. Our results affirm the importance of long-term monitoring and the value of MPAs, when sufficiently large, as reference areas for determining and understanding ecosystem effects of fishing in the absence of historical baseline data.     

Home range estimates for squaretail coralgrouper, Plectropomus areolatus (Rüppell 1830)

The aim of the study was to estimate home range areas and distance of movement away from a squaretail coralgrouper (Plectropomus areolatus) spawning aggregation site located within a small-scale 1.5 km² Marine Protected Area (MPA) in Pohnpei, Micronesia. Fifteen P. areolatus were acoustically tagged and re-located within a ca. 50 km² search area over a 4-month period that included reproductive and non-reproductive months. All relocated fish were found in areas of moderate to high coral cover either on the fore reef or inside the lagoon in home ranges of 0.048 ± 0.018 km² (μ ± S.E.). Variability in home range area (0.004–0.12 km²) and distance of movement from aggregation sites following spawning (0.02–23.0 km; 5.3 ± 3.6 km, μ ± S.E.) was observed, but did not appear to be sex specific. Five of the six relocated individuals were found within 0.02–6.1 km of the aggregation. This evidence and that from recent tag-recapture studies of epinephelids suggest that a substantial proportion of individual P. areolatus spawning populations reside within close proximity to their respective aggregation sites. Reproductive populations could be protected by MPAs of moderate scale (10 s of km²) that include aggregation sites, migratory corridors and adjacent home range habitats.     

Measuring the long-term success of small-scale marine protected areas in a Philippine reef fishery

Tropical coral reefs are subject to multiple pressures from both natural and anthropogenic sources. These pressures have caused widespread declines in reef health, resulting in the increased use of spatial management tools such as marine protected areas (MPAs). MPAs have proven generally effective if well designed and enforced, but there are limited long-term studies investigating how the presence of small-scale MPAs affects fish populations and reef communities. Using a 12-year time series, we found that small-scale (10–50 ha) community-managed MPAs along the Danajon Bank of the Philippines preserved average fish biomass within their boundaries over time relative to surrounding fished reefs. Unprotected areas are, however, showing significant long-term biomass decline. MPAs were also found to preserve more key trophic groups and larger-bodied commercially targeted reef fish families. Fish biomass of piscivore, scavenger and invertivore trophic groups inside individual MPAs is, however, still declining at a similar rate as outside. Surprisingly, long-term benthic cover and growth form composition were not significantly affected overall by MPA presence, despite the sporadic use of highly destructive dynamite fishing in this region. Coral cover has remained historically low (21–28%) throughout the study, following widespread bleaching mortality. While management tempered overall abundance declines, we found that irrespective of MPA presence, there was a generalised decline of both large- and small-bodied fish size groups across the study region, most steeply within the 20–30 cm length fish, and a shift towards proportionally higher abundances of small (5–10 cm) fish. This indicates a combination of over-exploitation, inadequate MPA size and coverage for larger fish, and the lingering effects of the 1998 bleaching event. Generalised shifts in body size and trophic structure reported here could lead to future reductions in fishery productivity and stability and will be further exacerbated unless broader fishery regulations and enforcement is instated.

     

The selection and design of marine protected areas: Australia as a case study

Recently there has been increased interest in the use of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) as tools for the conservation of marine habitats and species. This has resulted in the declaration of many MPAs around the world. Despite this activity there have been few tests of hypotheses about the design criteria for selection and management of these areas, resulting in a haphazard and ad hoc selection of protected areas, with conflicting and inconsistent terminology and objectives. The application of appropriately tested scientific information to the design of MPAs will increase the likelihood of success in the future.To 1st January 1992, 267 MPAs had been declared in Australia, covering a total area of ca 400 019 km². The history of their declaration has been sporadic and uneven. Conflicts over State and Federal legislation and, within states, conflicts over jurisdiction among agencies caused by overlapping responsibilities, have at times slowed the declaration of MPAs. In this paper, the history of MPAs in Australia is used as a case study to discuss the problems, both biological and administrative, of declaring MPAs.     

Costa Rica's Marine Protected Areas: status and perspectives

With 51 100km2 of terrestrial area and 589 000km2 of national waters, Costa Rica is considered one of the countries with the greatest biodiversity. It has approximately 3.5% of the world marine species. In the last four decades, Costa Rica has done a considerable effort to create a representative system of Protected Areas (PA), mainly terrestrial. We present an assessment of the current situation of the Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in Costa Rica, through an historical analysis, and an evaluation of their distribution, coverage and management categories. Costa Rica has 166 protected areas covering 50% of the coastline; of these 20 are MPAs, classified as National Parks (90.6%), National Wildlife Refuges (6.6%), Wetlands (1.5%), Biological Reserves (1%), and one Absolute Natural Reserve (0.3%). According to IUCN criteria, 93.7% correspond to category II, 5% to IV and 1.3% to I. The marine protected surface is 5 296.5km2, corresponding to 17.5% of the territorial waters and 0.9% of the Exclusive Economic Zone. The median distance between MPAs is 22.4km in the Pacific and 32.9km along the Caribbean. The median size is close to 54km2. The main threats to MPAs are the lack of coordination between governmental agencies, limited economic resources, restricted patrolling and control, poor watershed management, and rampant coastal alteration.     

In situ video monitoring of by-catch interactions within commercial rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) fishing traps

The incidental capture of non-target and undersized target species during commercial fishing operations has been identified as a major issue and ongoing challenge for fisheries management. In the Northern Zone rock lobster (Jasus edwardsii) fishery (NZRLF) of South Australia, escape gaps have been mandatory in all commercial fishing traps since 2002 to reduce non-target species (by-catch) catch rates and juvenile lobster mortality. This study used in situ video monitoring of by-catch species in traps with and without escape gaps to understand how by-catch species interact within commercial fishing traps. Twenty-two different by-catch species were observed entering commercial rock lobster traps, 20 of which were temperate reef finfish. Overall, on-board by-catch rates were significantly higher in hauled traps without escape gaps and were dominated by reef-dwelling finfish species, particularly Meuschenia hippocrepis and Notolabrus tetricus. However, in situ video monitoring within traps showed no difference in the maximum number of finfish by-catch (MaxN) in traps with or without escape gaps. We suggest that the difference in by-catch rates between hauled traps with and without escape gaps may be driven by species-specific behavioural interactions within traps prior to hauling. Overall, this study shows that the implementation of escape gaps in the NZRLF has considerably reduced fishery by-catch rates. Furthermore, the use of in situ video monitoring has provided a better understanding of by-catch behavioural interactions within traps, not previously identified in on-board sampling research, which may partly explain the mechanisms underpinning escape gap effectiveness.     

Spillover from marine protected areas to adjacent fisheries has an ecological and a fishery component

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), if well designed and managed, can produce conservation benefits to fish assemblages within no-take zones and fishery benefits in neighboring areas through ‘spillover’. However, although plenty of studies have provided evidence of the benefits produced within MPA boundaries, overall benefits to local fisheries, especially via spillover, seem to be still unclear. Because of the lost fishing grounds following an MPA establishment, local fishermen usually oppose MPAs. There is, therefore, the urgent need for a better understanding of the mechanism(s) through which MPAs can export fishable fish biomass towards adjacent fished areas, a process that could counterbalance the loss of fishing grounds. Here we review the literature on spillover for refining the terminology, detailing the underlying mechanisms and identifying both the existing and needed methodological approaches to measure spillover. Operationally, two types of spillover should be considered: ecological spillover (i.e. the net export of juvenile, subadult and adult biomass from MPAs outwards driven by density-dependent processes) and the fishery spillover (i.e. the proportion of this biomass that can be fished, taking into account regulations and accessibility). Underwater visual census and tagging/tracking may allow getting evidence of ecological spillover, while experimental catch data are essential to assess and monitor fishery spillover, which is the main component of MPAs that can provide direct benefit to local fisheries.     

Spatial pattern in catch rates: A test of economic theory

Gordon (1953,J. Fish. Res. Bd Can.10, 442–457) used economic theory to predict how catch rates, price and fishing costs should balance in a multi-area, open-access fishery. We use the data from the Tasmanian rock lobster fishery to test this theory. We find that, as prediced by theory, areas with higher monetary and non-monetary costs have consistently higher catch rates than areas with lower costs. We show that this theory also predicts that an increase in price would result in an overall increase in catch rate, and suggest that in fisheries with spatial variation in costs, catch rates may be determined as much by economic factors as biological ones.     

Gargoor trap fishery in Kuwait,catch rate and species composition

Kuwait's fisheries include shrimp trawlers, gill nets, intertidal stake nets, and demersal fish traps, known locally as gargoor. The gargoor fishery used to be the nation's most important in terms of value and landings volume, but declines in catch rates have reduced its ranking. This paper describes the status of the gargoor artisanal fishery. The main landings place was sampled for catch and effort, and fish length‐frequency data from May 2003 to December 2005. The catch rate, monthly average number of boats operating, and the number of gargoor cleared were estimated for dhow boats fishing in Kuwait's waters and international waters, and speed boats operating in Kuwait waters only. Over the duration of the study period, the speedboat catch rates were higher than those of dhow boats, i.e., 3.7 kg/trap‐pull vs. 2.6 and 2.5 kg/trap‐pull for dhows fishing in Kuwait's territorial waters and international waters, respectively. The grouper, Epinephelus coicodes, was the main species captured, contributing 19.3% and 17.8% to the dhow catch in Kuwait waters and international waters, respectively. The catch rates by dhow boats declined from an average of 4.7 kg/trap‐pull in 2003 to 2.7 kg/trap‐pull in 2005 representing a 41% decrease. If this decreasing catch rate trend continues, then fishing effort should be reduced to allow stock recovery. It is recommended that the number of gargoor fished in Kuwaiti waters should be limited and that several no‐fishing zones be established to ensure the minimum spawning stock biomass and preserve biodiversity for all fisheries.     

The challenge of assessing whether the OSPAR network of marine protected areas is ecologically coherent

As MPA networks continue to grow worldwide, decision makers and the public will need to be kept informed regarding progress made in meeting the underlying ecological goals of the networks. The twelve coastal European nations of the OSPAR Commission have agreed to establish within the waters of the Northeast Atlantic an “ecologically coherent” network of marine protected areas by 2010. An initial set of 81 MPAs in the Northeast Atlantic was accepted by the OSPAR Commission in June 2006, and as of 31 December 2006 six additional sites have been put forward. They amount to approximately 26,500 km², submitted by six of the twelve coastal nations. The job of assessing their ecological coherence has proven to be a difficult issue, and one that has not been attempted before. Assessment techniques that can cope with data-poor situations will prove most helpful, and with this in mind, three general approaches that can be used in data-poor situations and four specific examples of assessment techniques, are presented in this paper. Additionally, a brief summary of the current status of the OSPAR MPA network is provided. Guest editors: J. Davenport, G. Burnell, T. Cross, M. Emmerson, R. McAllen, R. Ramsay & E. Rogan Challenges to Marine Ecosystems     

World historical mapping and potential distribution of Cinchona spp. in Peru as a contribution for its restoration and conservation

Peru is a megadiverse country in neotropical flora and is home to an important genus of plants called Cinchona and commonly all its individual species are called Cinchona Tree (Cinchona spp.), which represents the national tree for this nation. This country has 18 species, a group of these species are listed as vulnerable, endangered, and their population trend is currently unknown. This genus is at risk of extinction due to overexploitation for its medicinal, constructive and food uses. The IUCN also mentions that increased species assessments and records will help make the IUCN Red List a “barometer of life”. Based on the fact that understanding the effects of environmental change on ecosystems requires the identification of historical and current baselines, which can act as reference conditions, this research generated georeferenced global historical maps of Cinchona spp. and then determined the appropriate sites based on environmental variables using the MaxEnt software and established the probabilities of occurrence of this genus in Peru to establish priority areas for its conservation and restoration. Four maps were obtained, one for each centennial, from 1737 to the present, with 10 860 occurrences of Cinchona. In the MaxEnt modeling, 10.30 % (13 3172.56 km²) and 19.20 % (24 7371.32 km²) of Peru's surface area had high ( > 0.6) and moderate (0.4–0.6) probabilities, respectively, of hosting Cinchona. Only 7.6 % (17 305.32 km²) and 22.0 % (50 153.73 km²) of the areas with high and moderate distribution potential, respectively, were covered by natural protected areas. Likewise, 11.90 % (21 738.75 km²) and 33.20 % (60 789.17 km²) of the high and moderate probability lands, respectively, correspond to degraded areas (DAs) and, therefore, are considered a priority for restoration with Cinchona spp. The results may stimulate the rethinking of decision making for the National Action Plan for Reforestation with Species of the Genus Cinchona and other plans or tools for Cinchona conservation in Peru.     

An overview of commercial fishers’ attitudes towards marine protected areas

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are attracting widespread attention worldwide as a tool for fishery management and marine ecosystem conservation. The establishment of MPAs has increased greatly in recent years mostly due to international commitments to the establishment of a global network of MPAs by 2012. MPAs have the potential to strongly affect the fishing industry, and their success depends, at least partly, on fishers’ attitudes towards this management measure. However, research on MPAs tends to focus on the ecological and conservation aspects of this management approach and not on its human dimensions. Studies in attitudes, perceptions, beliefs and preferences related to MPA issues have been identified as priority social science topics in need of research. We present a ‘rapid review’, conducted systematically, of the literature published up to September 2009 and aimed at identifying the most investigated topics related to commercial fishers’ attitudes towards MPAs, describing the main findings from these studies, and analysing the implications for management. Most published work focuses on fishers’ attitudes towards issues of governance, conservation of biodiversity and the environment, and the impact of MPAs on fishing activity. Despite the recent increase in the literature on the human dimensions of MPAs, the present review reveals that little of this literature originates from empirical studies. Hence, given the forthcoming increase in the implementation of MPAs in the near future, research on fishers’ attitudes towards these management measures is critically needed.     

Does a No-Take Marine Protected Area Benefit Seahorses?

Seahorses are iconic charismatic species that are often used to ‘champion’ marine conservation causes around the world. As they are threatened in many countries by over-exploitation and habitat loss, marine protected areas (MPAs) could help with their protection and recovery. MPAs may conserve seahorses through protecting essential habitats and removing fishing pressures. Populations of White''s seahorse, Hippocampus whitei, a species endemic to New South Wales, Australia, were monitored monthly from 2006 to 2009 using diver surveys at two sites within a no-take marine protected areas established in 1983, and at two control sites outside the no-take MPA sites. Predators of H. whitei were also identified and monitored. Hippocampus whitei were more abundant at the control sites. Seahorse predators (3 species of fish and 2 species of octopus) were more abundant within the no-take MPA sites. Seahorse and predator abundances were negatively correlated. Substantial variability in the seahorse population at one of the control sites reinforced the importance of long-term monitoring and use of multiple control sites to assess the outcomes of MPAs for seahorses. MPAs should be used cautiously to conserve seahorse populations as there is the risk of a negative impact through increased predator abundance.     

Empirical Evidence for Species-Specific Export of Fish Na?veté from a No-Take Marine Protected Area in a Coastal Recreational Hook and Line Fishery

No-take marine protected areas (MPAs) are assumed to enhance fisheries catch via the “spillover” effect, where biomass is exported to adjacent exploited areas. Recent studies in spearfishing fisheries suggest that the spillover of gear-naïve individuals from protected to unprotected sites increases catch rates outside the boundaries of MPAs. Whether this is a widespread phenomenon that also holds for other gear types and species is unknown. In this study, we tested if the distance to a Mediterranean MPA predicted the degree of vulnerability to hook and line in four small-bodied coastal fish species. With the assistance of underwater video recording, we investigated the interaction effect of the distance to the boundary of an MPA and species type relative to the latency time to ingest a natural bait, which was considered as a surrogate of fish naïveté or vulnerability to fishing. Vulnerability to angling increased (i.e., latency time decreased) within and near the boundary of an MPA for an intrinsically highly catchable species (Serranus scriba), while it remained constant for an intrinsically uncatchable control species (Chromis chromis). While all of the individuals of S. scriba observed within the MPA and surrounding areas were in essence captured by angling gear, only one fifth of individuals in the far locations were captured. This supports the potential for the spillover of gear-naïve and consequently more vulnerable fish from no-take MPAs. Two other species initially characterized as intermediately catchable (Coris julis and Diplodus annularis) also had a shorter latency time in the vicinity of an MPA, but for these two cases the trend was not statistically significant. Overall, our results suggest that an MPA-induced naïveté effect may not be universal and may be confined to only intrinsically highly catchable fish species. This fact emphasizes the importance of considering the behavioural dimension when predicting the outcomes of MPAs, otherwise the effective contribution may be smaller than predicted for certain highly catchable species such as S. scriba.     

Living in the suburbs: Space use by vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) in an eco‐estate,South Africa

We examined vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) space use using GPS/UHF telemetry data from 10 vervet monkeys across six troops over 9 months within a 420 ha suburban eco‐estate. We documented a mean home range of 0.99 km² (95% MCP) and 1.07 km² (95% KDE) for females (n = 6), 1 km² (95% MCP) and 1.50 km² (95% KDE) for males (n = 4) and 0.87 km² (95% MCP) and 1.12 km² (95% KDE) for troops (n = 6), respectively, indicating that males and larger troops had larger home ranges. These relatively small home ranges included shared territorial boundaries and high home range overlap. Vervet monkey movements indicated higher morning activity levels, and habitat selection indicated significantly more use of golf course, urban residential and forest, thicket and woodland areas, and avoidance of wetland, grassland and shrub, and urban built‐up areas. Our results suggest that modified habitat use by vervet monkeys is a consequence of behavioural facilitation to access highly available food resources, thereby facilitating their persistence in green spaces in urban areas of South Africa. Conflict management is dependent on the conservation of sufficient natural habitats and food resources, to minimise their dependence on anthropogenic supplementary food resources and consequently reduce human–monkey conflict.     

Prospects for Transboundary Marine Protected Areas in East Africa

Transboundary marine protected areas have been proposed in East Africa to tackle threats to marine biodiversity, meet international MPA targets, promote tourism, and contribute to poverty reduction. This article examines what may drive, facilitate, or constrain states in creating a regime for transboundary MPAs. In East Africa, a regime between Mozambique and Tanzania is not yet formed and may be indefinitely delayed due to oil prospecting and exploration. There is, however, a well-developed regime between Mozambique and South Africa that has resulted in the two adjoining MPAs being declared the first transboundary MPA on the continent.