Vocal communication of wild bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata)

Field observations and spectrographic analyses of sound recordings of South Indian bonnet macaques revealed a vocal repertoire of at least 25 basic patterns. The repertoire consists of well separated sound classes and acoustic categories connected by structural intergradation. Besides structural variations within and between different elements of the repertoire, the vocal system ofMacaca radiata is characterized by regular combinations of particular basic patterns. These combinations occurred not only between calls of similar structure and function but also between calls usually emitted in entirely different social contexts. According to the qualitative analysis, sex-specific asymmetries of the vocal behaviour were less pronounced than age-dependent characteristics. The comparison of clear call vocalizations ofMacaca radiata andM. fuscata revealed significant species-specific differences on the structural and the behavioural level. Evaluations of the structural features of alarm calls of various macaque species imply marked differences between members of thefascicularis group andsinica group on one hand and thesilenus group andarctoides group on the other.     

Species differences of male loud calls and their perception in sulawesi macaques

Playback experiments were conducted to investigate interspecific discrimination of male loud calls in Sulawesi macaques. Loud calls of four macaque species living in Sulawesi (Macaca tonkeana, M. maurus, M. hecki, andM. nigrescens) and a control stimulus (an 8-sec frequency modulated sound) were played back to semi-free-ranging Tonkean macaques (M. tonkeana). A preliminary acoustic analysis indicated that the calls of these four species differ in some spectral and temporal features. In the playback experiments, Tonkean macaques responded in a similar manner to conspecific calls and calls of two other species,M. maurus andM. hecki. In contrast, animals responded more weakly to the call ofM. nigrescens and the control stimulus. Males responded more strongly than females to all stimuli, while females appeared to be more discriminating for species differences than males. Analyses on the acoustic features of loud calls suggested that high frequency, wide frequency range, and repetition of sound units at a high rate elicit quick responses from animals.     

A preliminary study of vocal communication in wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). II. Potential of calls to regulate intragroup spacing

This study is a preliminary assessment of the potential of long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) calls to operate in systems of within-group spacing. Covariation in the rate of occurrence of calls with party spread, size, and activity among wild individuals of one group suggested that four classes of calls may function in intragroup spacing. Two of them are “clear” calls of long duration and pronounced frequency modulation. Calling rate increased with party spread for low- and high-frequency variants of these calls during resting and feeding respectively, suggesting possible utility in maintenance of spatial relations over moderately long distances. A third “harsh” call was negatively correlated with party spread during foraging and may thus function to increase dispersion among foraging individuals. Another harsh call with a tonal onset was unique among all calls in the vocal repertoire in being more frequently performed by lone, isolated individuals than by macaques accompanied by others, suggesting a possible function in reestablishing contact that has been severed. The functional significance of these calls with respect to their acoustic structures is discussed. Macaques that use calls to regulate intragroup spacing can control communication distance and direction by their choice of acoustically different vocalizations. This choice may be affected not only by varying environmental constraints on sound transmission, but also by social and ecological factors such as intragroup competition.     

Borna disease virus RNA detected in Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata)

We have examined the seroprevalence of BDV in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in the peninsula (Chiba prefecture), Japan. Serum samples from macaques were examined by the ELISA, Western blot and immunofluorescence assays to detect the presence of serum antibodies that react specifically to BDV antigens. Among 49 investigated individuals, 6 (12.2%) showed positive reaction to BDV antigens. RT-PCR studies detected BDV sequences in brain tissue of one case among four seropositive cases examined. Sequence analysis revealed a high degree of genetic conservation between BDV sequences derived from Japanese macaques and those documented for other animal species. Nevertheless, phylogenetic analysis revealed unique differences between macaque and other species derived BDV sequences.     

Buton macaques (Macaca ochreata brunnescens): crops, conflict, and behavior on farms

One consequence of anthropogenic habitat alteration is that many nonhuman primates are forced into conflict interactions with humans and their livelihood activities, especially through crop raiding. These problems are particularly acute for the endemic and threatened Buton Island macaque (Macaca ochreata brunnescens), in southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. Our study investigated the crop raiding behavior of this species over time. Foods eaten and the behavioral repertoire exhibited by macaques during crop raiding at and inside farm perimeters were observed over a period of 8 years (2002–2009). Storage organ crops (e.g. sweet potato) were abundant and most frequently raided by macaques. Individual macaques were most commonly observed to raid close (0–10 m) to farm perimeters. Activities such as feeding, resting, moving, and social interaction varied significantly as a function of penetration distance into the farm, but only marginally between age‐sex classes. The annual average raid frequency per farm decreased over the latter years of the study period, raising questions about changes in macaque foraging and ranging behavior over time and their response to farm management and mitigation strategies. Am. J. Primatol. 74:29–36, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Blood groups of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata), with a brief introduction to seroprimatology

The human-type A-B-O blood groups of 52 bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) were determined. Application of method of population genetics indicated the gene frequences to be O = 0.173, A = 0.480 and B = 0.347. Cross testing of sera and red cells of the bonnet macaques revealed two blood-type-specific isoagglutinins, one of them strong enough for use as a blood typing reagent. No blood group polymorphism was revealed by testing bonnet macaque red cells with isoantisera produced in rhesus monkeys (M. mulatta) and in crab-eating macaques (M. fascicularis). The rhesus and crab-eating macaque isoantisera reacted either with all or with none of the bonnet macaque red cells tested.     

VOCAL REPERTOIRE OF WILD BREEDING ORANGE-WINGED PARROTS AMAZONA AMAZONICA IN AMAZONIA

ABSTRACT

The vocal repertoire of Amazona amazonica during its breeding season has been recorded from wild individuals in Santa Bárbara do Pará, Pará State, Brazil. At individual nests, we continuously recorded vocalizations and behaviour for four hours in the early morning and three hours in the late afternoon, three times a week throughout the breeding season. We identified nine vocalizations that we classified in three behavioural categories: (1) Flight call—emitted when parrots arrive in the nest area; (2) Perched contact calls—two different vocalizations, one of them related to feeding, were emitted when the pair was perched in the nest area and interacted socially between themselves or with other individuals; (3) Aggressive calls—emitted when birds were in a dangerous situation, i.e. alarm (three types of calls), agonistic contact and distress calls (two types of call). The Orange-winged Parrot is a highly social species and the complexity of its social interactions is reflected in the diversity of its vocal repertoire.     

Hematological values and parasite fauna in free-rangingMacaca hecki and theM. hecki/M. tonkeana hybrid group of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia

Hematological values and parasitological fauna of free-rangingMacaca hecki and the hybrid group betweenM. hecki/M. tonkeana of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, were investigated. The hematological values, especially the red cell number (RBC), were lower than those of other macaque species, indicating that Sulawesi macaques are slightly anemic. Several parasites including Plasmodium sp., trombiculid mites, andTrichuris trichiura were identified. Although infection by Plasmodium was observed with considerable frequency, no clear relationship between its infection and the occurrence of anemia was found. Trombiculid mites and eggs ofAnatrichosoma sp. were detected in foci of the ears of most monkeys. The infection with a trombiculid mite is the first recorded occurrence in free-ranging wild Sulawesi macaques. Gastrointestinal parasites were identified from their eggs in fecal samples, where five species of nematoda and one trematoda species were found.     

RECENT BIOACOUSTIC PUBLICATIONS (2002 and earlier)

The vocal repertoire of the Asiatic Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus) has been poorly studied and until recently only two call types (chuffing and humming) have been described. Here I investigate the vocalizations of three wild orphaned cubs (two males and one female) reared by two observers in natural conditions in the Russian Far East. I grouped the calls into structural types, and then compared them with existing literature data on vocalizations of the same, as well as other species of the Ursidae family. In total, 1302 calls were classified visually from spectrograms into seven call types: whine, moan, yelp, grunt, snort, chuffing and humming. Classification results were verified with discriminant function analysis and randomization. I also fixed the presence of nonlinear phenomena (NLP) and articulation effects in calls. Whine was the most frequently recorded, as well as the most structurally variable call type due to a high rate of NLP. These results indicate that the vocal repertoire of the Asiatic Black Bear cubs is graded, but includes at least two discrete sound types. This work needs to be continued with further studies of vocalizations of cubs and adults of this species to verify the results of this preliminary study.     

CLASSIFICATION OF DIVERSE CALL TYPES USING CLUSTER ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

ABSTRACT

We investigated the problem of categorizing the repertoire of a group of highly varied vocalizations. A set of Weddell seal Leptonychotes weddellim-air calls recorded near Davis, Antarctica, were examined. The repertoire size was estimated by first subjectively assigning each call (based on auditory and spectrographic patterns) to one of a large number of provisional call types. A set of frequency, duration and waveform measurements were made on every call. For each provisional call type, the mean value of each of these measures was calculated. These mean values were used to perform Cluster Analyses of the provisional call types. Beginning with calls clustered closest together, the most similar provisional call types were successively amalgamated until further joining would link two clearly dissimilar vocalizations (rising versus falling frequency sweeps in this case). The Weddell seal repertoire contained 12 call types ranging from long sinusoidal upsweeps to growls. This procedure provides a method of estimating the minimum repertoire size of a sample of calls. Dichotomous Sorting using Principal Components Analysis can also be used to categorize calls but will probably be of greater value when applied to finding subdivisions within a single call type.     

Origin and evolution of the sulawesi macaques 2. complete amino acid sequences of seven β chains of three molecular types

Seven β chains were identified as the typical molecular types carried by the seven species of Sulawesi macaques based on isoelectric focusing and urea starch gel electrophoresis. These β chains include the β3 chains ofmaura, tonkeana, nigra, andbrunnescens, β1 chains ofhecki andochreata and β5 chain ofnigra. The results of chromatography on cation-exchange and reversed phase columns and the amino acid compositions of the tryptic peptides suggested substitutions at the 9th and 13th amino acids from the N-terminal. Sequence analyses of these seven β chains from the N-terminal to the 18th amino acid and those of purified tryptic peptides from βT3 to βT15 by Edman degradation revealed the following facts: (1) the amino acid sequences of the β3 chains carried by the four species coincided with each other and as did those of the β1 chains of the two named species; and (2) the 9th and 13th amino acids were Lys and Thr in β3, Asn and Asn in β1, and Asp and Thr in the β5 chain, respectively. These three β chains are related with each other by at least two-base changes. The evolution of the β chains of the Sulawesi macaques was inferred to be as follows. (1) The β3 chain might have been dominant β chain in the past among Sulawesi macaques, since peripheral species separately carried this chain; (2) the β1 and β5 chains might have derived from a “missing link” because of more than two-base substitutions between β3 and β1 and between β3 and β5; (3) eight other macaque species, including the lion-tailed macaque (M. silenus), bear Asn and Thr at these two positions, while the Barbary macaque (M. sylvanus) has Thr and Thr; and (4) thus, if the parsimonious rule is followed, the type with Asn-Thr is the most plausible “missing link,” since only the Asn-Thr type can combine these five β chains by minimum one-base change. Two genetic events are postulated in the evolutionary process of the Sulawesi β chains: the first Lys-Thr type (β3) was distributed over the whole island, and next Asn-Thr, the common type in other macaques, produced Asn-Asn (β1) and Asp-Thr (β5).     

Responses to urinary stimuli in pigtailed (Macaca nemestrina) and stumptailed (Macaca arctoides) macaques

Responses to different urine samples were studied in pigtailed (M. nemestrina) and stumptailed (M. arctoides) macaques. Both species exhibited more interest towards urine samples from their own species than neutral stimuli. Responses towards urine samples from other macaque species did not significantly differ from those towards neutral stimuli. In stumptailed macaques, no differential interest was observed between urine samples from a known (the adult male of the group) and an unknown adult male conspecific.     

Japanese macaque microsatellite PCR primers for paternity testing

Capture and blood sampling in wild primate populations are difficult. For this reason, we need to use DNA extracted from the hair or feces of target animals. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method, which amplifies small volumes of DNA, provides an ideal means for studying DNA variations in wild populations. Three sets of PCR primers which amplify highly polymorphic (GT/AC)_n dinucleotide repetitive regions were synthesized from DNA sequences of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). One of the primer pairs detected at least seven alleles in one captive Japanese macaque group. Also, the fathers of four offspring whose mothers had died in a captive group of Japanese macaques were identified. In such cases, the father cannot be determined by the previous DNA fingerprinting method based on the polymorphism of minisatellite DNA. These primers were further tested with some species of the Cercopithecidae, e.g. grivet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops tantalus) and hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas). The results obtained suggest that these primers can detect stably inherited polymorphic regions in each species.     

Vocalizations and morphology: interpreting the divergence among populations of Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax and Alpine Chough P. graculus

Capsule Differences in vocalizations among populations are mostly explained on morphological bases, but historical factors may have played a significant role in differentiation processes.

Aims To investigate the relationships among vocal and morphological variation in two corvids: Chough and Alpine Chough.

Methods We used data from 11 populations of Chough and seven populations of Alpine Chough spanning the Palearctic distribution of the two species. Three data sets (morphometry, spectrotemporal parameters of trill calls and acoustic repertoire) were analysed and their variation compared with uni- and multivariate techniques.

Results In both species, morphological differences among populations were correlated to spectro-temporal variation of trills; in particular, frequencies of calls were negatively correlated to wing length (an indicator of body size). By considering only co-existing populations of the two species, the magnitude of morphological and spectrotemporal divergence was similar.

Conclusions In both species, birds from populations with similar morphology uttered similar call types and trills with close spectrotemporal features. In particular, larger-sized populations, as expressed by wing length, emitted lower pitched calls. However, the fact that dissimilarities in repertoire and morphology were correlated cannot be explained only by appealing to functional explanations, as the observed intraspecific morphological variability does not seem to be high enough to promote consistent changes in the pool of calls. In this case, historical factors might have contributed to the present pattern of differentiation.     

Distribution and Abundance of Primates in Rain Forests of the Western Ghats,Karnataka, India and the Conservation of Macaca silenus

We assessed the distribution and abundance of 4 species of diurnal primates viz. lion-tailed macaque, bonnet macaque, Nilgiri langur and Hanuman langur, in 2 areas—Brahmagiri-Makut and Sirsi-Honnavara—in rain forests of the Western Ghats in the state of Karnataka, India. The Nilgiri langurs in Brahmagiri-Makut and the lion-tailed macaques in Sirsi-Honnavara are the northernmost populations of the 2 species in the Western Ghats. The 2 regions represent changes in ecological zones in the Western Ghats. In Brahmagiri-Makut, Hanuman langurs and bonnet macaques occupy lower elevations whereas Nilgiri langurs live in relatively higher altitudes. Only one group of lion-tailed macaques was in Brahmagiri-Makut. In the forests of Sirsi-Honnavara, 3 species of primates viz. lion-tailed macaque, bonnet macaque and Hanuman langur were in larger numbers throughout the forest. A self-sustainable single population of 32 groups of lion-tailed macaques occurred in Sirsi-Honnavara. Few subspecies of Hanuman langurs exist in the study regions. Due to local hunting practices, the relative abundance of primates in Brahmagiri-Makut is lower than that in Sirsi-Honnavara.     

Genetic polymorphism of alpha-1-antitrypsin in macaque species

Thirty-two phenotypes of alpha-1-antitrypsin (al-AT) controlled by 18 codominant alleles of PI_mac locus were identified by isoelectric focusing in 1.121 macaques of nine species. In terms of al-AT polymorphism macaque species vary markedly from nearly monomorphic (Macaca mulatta, M. arctoides) to highly polymorphic (M. nemestrina, M. fascicularis). Only 4 of 18 PI_mac alleles are common for two or more macaque species, the rest of the alleles are species-specific.     

Morphometric analysis ofMacaca arctoides andM. thibetana in relation to other macaque species

As a first step in reviewing the classification of the two stump-tailed macaque species,Macaca arctoides andM. thibetana, as compared with other species of the genusMacaca, 72 linear dental and cranial variables of 11 macaque species were examined by morphometric analyses. The results indicate that the two stump-tailed species are the largest of the macaques and although rather similar overall, they exhibit significant differences in the pattern of variation in most of the five skull regions as shown by Principal Components and Canonical Variate Analyses. Euclidean Distances based on Canonical Variate scores indicate that the females ofM. arctoides andM. thibetana are more widely separated than eight other pairs of macaque species, and that the separations of the respective males are greater than those of three other pairs of species. These findings are consistent withFooden's classification of the stump-tailed macaques as two separate species (Fooden, 1976;Fooden et al., 1985). The present results suggest, as other researchers have proposed on the basis of external features, biochemistry and genetics, that the two stump-tailed macaque species andM. assamensis are closely related. The results also tentatively imply associations withM. fuscata andM. sylvanus but these require further study. The findings have implications for the assessment of the various Chinese Pleistocene macaque fossils.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca munzala</Emphasis>: A New Species from Western Arunachal Pradesh,Northeastern India<Superscript>*</Superscript>

Macaca, comprising 20 well-characterized species, represents the largest and one of the most ecologically and socially diverse of all the nonhuman primate genera. We report the discovery of a macaque that is new to science from the high altitudes of western Arunachal Pradesh, a biodiversity-rich state in northeastern India. We propose the scientific name Macaca munzala and the vernacular name Arunachal macaque for the species. It shares morphological characteristics independently with the Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis) and with the Tibetan macaque M. thibetana; like them, it appears to belong to the sinica species-group of the genus. However, the species is distinctive in relative tail length, which is intermediate between those of Tibetan and Western Assamese macaques, the subspecies with which it is sympatric. It is also unique in its altitudinal distribution, occurring largely at altitudes between 2000 and 3500 m. We provide a morphological characterization of the species, report preliminary data on its field biology and discuss possible taxonomic identity in relation to the other closely-related species of Macaca.^*This paper is dedicated to Dr. A. J. T. Johnsingh for his immense contributions to the study and conservation of India’s wildlife and for being an inspiration to a whole generation of students.     

Temperament in Rhesus,Long‐Tailed,and Pigtailed Macaques Varies by Species and Sex

Temperament differs among individuals both within and between species. Evidence suggests that differences in temperament of group members may parallel differences in social behavior among groups or between species. Here, we compared temperament between three closely related species of monkey—rhesus (Macaca mulatta), long‐tailed (M. fascicularis), and pigtailed (M. nemestrina) macaques—using cage‐front behavioral observations of individually housed monkeys at a National Primate Research Center. Frequencies of 12 behaviors in 899 subjects were analyzed using a principal components analysis to identify temperament components. The analysis identified four components, which we interpreted as Sociability toward humans, Cautiousness, Aggressiveness, and Fearfulness. Species and sexes differed in their average scores on these components, even after controlling for differences in age and early‐life experiences. Our results suggest that rhesus macaques are especially aggressive and unsociable toward humans, long‐tailed macaques are more cautious and fearful, and pigtailed macaques are more sociable toward humans and less aggressive than the other species. Pigtailed males were notably more sociable than any other group. The differences observed are consistent with reported variation in these species’ social behaviors, as rhesus macaques generally engage in more social aggression and pigtailed macaques engage in more male–male affiliative behaviors. Differences in predation risks are among the socioecological factors that might make these species‐typical behaviors adaptive. Our results suggest that adaptive species‐level social differences may be encoded in individual‐level temperaments, which are manifested even outside of a social context. Am. J. Primatol. 75:303‐313, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.