Catabolism of gastrin releasing peptide and substance P by gastric membrane-bound peptidases

The catabolism of two gastric neuropeptides, the C-terminal decapeptide of gastrin releasing peptide-27 (GRP10) and substance P (SP), by membrane-bound peptidases of the porcine gastric corpus and by porcine endopeptidase-24.11 ("enkephalinase") has been investigated. GRP10 was catabolized by gastric muscle peptidases (specific activity 1.8 nmol min-1 mg-1 protein) by hydrolysis of the His8-Leu9 bond and catabolism was inhibited by phosphoramidon (I50 approx. 10(-8) M), a specific inhibitor of endopeptidase-24.11. The same bond in GRP10 was cleaved by purified endopeptidase-24.11, and hydrolysis was equally sensitive to inhibition by phosphoramidon. SP was catabolized by gastric muscle peptidases (specific activity 1.7 nmol min-1 mg-1 protein) by hydrolysis of the Gln6-Phe7, Phe7-Phe8 and Gly9-Leu10 bonds, which is identical to the cleavage of SP by purified endopeptidase-24.11. The C-terminal cleavage of GRP10 and SP would inactivate the peptides. It is concluded that a membrane-bound peptidase in the stomach wall catabolizes and inactivates GRP10 and SP and that, in its specificity and sensitivity to phosphoramidon, this peptidase resembles endopeptidase-24.11.     

The metabolism of neuropeptides. Neurokinin A (substance K) is a substrate for endopeptidase-24.11 but not for peptidyl dipeptidase A (angiotensin-converting enzyme).

Both endopeptidase-24.11 and peptidyl dipeptidase A have previously been shown to hydrolyse the neuropeptide substance P. The structurally related peptide neurokinin A is also shown to be hydrolysed by pig kidney endopeptidase-24.11. The identified products indicated hydrolysis at two sites, Ser5-Phe6 and Gly8-Leu9, consistent with the known specificity of the enzyme. The pattern of hydrolysis of neurokinin A by synaptic membranes prepared from pig striatum was similar to that observed with purified endopeptidase-24.11, and hydrolysis was substantially abolished by the selective inhibitor phosphoramidon. Peptidyl dipeptidase A purified from pig kidney was shown to hydrolyse substance P but not neurokinin A. It is concluded that endopeptidase-24.11 has the general capacity to hydrolyse and inactivate the family of tachykinin peptides, including substance P and neurokinin A.     

Metalloendopeptidase (EC 3.4.24.11) but not angiotensin converting enzyme is involved in the inactivation of substance P by synaptic membranes of the rat substantia nigra

Substance P is a neuropeptide released in vivo from the substantia nigra, the principal substance P nerve terminal region in the rat brain. Its inactivation was investigated in a purified nigral synaptic membrane preparation. The membrane-bound enzyme shares many features with the endopeptidase 24-11 (EC 3.4.24.11): 1) hydrolysis of peptide bonds Gln6-Phe7, Phe7-Phe8 and Gly9-Leu10, 2) sensitivity to the inhibition by phosphoramidon and 3) relative affinity for substance P. Bestatine and captopril inhibit only the hydrolysis of the metabolites. These results suggest that substance P is inactivated in substantia nigra by endopeptidase 24-11 and that a bestatin-sensitive aminopeptidase and angiotensin converting enzyme may play a role in subsequent degradation of the substance P metabolites.     

Degradation of human gastrin and CCK by endopeptidase 24.11: differential behaviour of the sulphated and unsulphated peptides

The degradation of human sulphated heptadecapeptide gastrin (G17s) by human endopeptidase 24.11 was studied in vitro. The products of degradation were characterized by HPLC, region-specific gastrin radioimmunoassay and amino acid analysis. The enzyme cleaved G17s at four sites, Trp4-Leu5, Ala11-Tyr12, Gly13-Trp14 and Asp16-Phe17. The patterns of fragments produced when sulphated and unsulphated G17s are hydrolysed by endopeptidase 24.11 indicate that the enzyme cleaves both substrates at the same four bonds. However, the sulphated G17 was 3-times less rapidly degraded than the unsulphated G17 (G17ns). In contrast, the rate of cleavage of the octapeptide cholecystokinin (CCK8) was faster when the peptide was sulphated. The kinetic data of endopeptidase 24.11 indicated similar Km values for sulphated or unsulphated gastrin and CCK; sulphated CCK8 exhibited a 2-fold higher kcat/Km value compared to unsulphated CCK8, whereas G17s exhibited a 2-fold lower kcat/Km value compared to G17ns. The results indicate that the presence of a sulphate group causes a marked reduction in the rate of hydrolysis of gastrin by endopeptidase 24.11, whereas sulphation enhances cholecystokinin degradation by the same enzyme. They also suggest that endopeptidase 24.11 may be responsible for the difference in metabolism of sulphated and unsulphated G17, previously observed in human circulation.     

Enzymatic inactivation of bradykinin by rat brain neuronal perikarya

1. Bradykinin (Bk; Arg1-Pro2-Pro3-Gly4-Phe5-Ser6-Pro7-Phe8-Arg8) inactivation by bulk isolated neurons from rat brain is described. 2. Bk is rapidly inactivated by neuronal perikarya (4.2 +/- 0.6 fmol/min/cell body). 3. Sites of inactivating cleavages, determined by a kininase bioassay combined with a time-course Bk-product analysis, were the Phe5-Ser6, Pro7-Phe8, Gly4-Phe5, and Pro3-Gly4 peptide bonds. The cleavage of the Phe5-Ser6 bond inactivated Bk at least five fold faster than the other observed cleavages. 4. Inactivating peptidases were identified by the effect of inhibitors on Bk-product formation. The Phe5-Ser6 bond cleavage is attributed mainly to a calcium-activated thiol-endopeptidase, a predominantly soluble enzyme which did not behave as a metalloenzyme upon dialysis and was strongly inhibited by N-[1(R,S)-carboxy-2-phenylethyl]-Ala-Ala-Phe-p-aminobenzoate and endo-oligopeptidase A antiserum. Thus, neuronal perikarya thiol-endopeptidase seems to differ from endo-oligopeptidase A and endopeptidase 24.15. 5. Endopeptidase 24.11 cleaves Bk at the Gly4-Phe5 and, to a larger extent, at the Pro7-Phe8 bond. The latter bond is also cleaved by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and prolyl endopeptidase (PE). PE also hydrolyzes Bk at the Pro3-Gly4 bond. 6. Secondary processing of Bk inactivation products occurs by (1) a rapid cleavage of Ser6-Pro7-Phe8-Arg8 at the Pro7-Phe8 bond by endopeptidase 24.11, 3820ACE, and PE; (2) a bestatin-sensitive breakdown of Phe8-Arg9; and (3) conversion of Arg1-Pro7 to Arg1-Phe5, of Gly4-Arg9 to both Gly4-Pro7 and Ser6-Arg9, and of Phe5-Arg9 to Ser6-Arg9, Phe8-Arg9, and Ser6-Pro7, by unidentified peptidases. 7. A model for the enzymatic inactivation of bradykinin by rat brain neuronal perikarya is proposed.     

Neurokinin B is hydrolysed by synaptic membranes and by endopeptidase-24.11 (enkephalinase) but not by angiotensin converting enzyme

The major site of hydrolysis was the Gly8-Leu9 bond. Angiotensin converting enzyme (peptidyl dipeptidase A, EC 3.4.15.1) from pig kidney hydrolysed substance P releasing the C-terminal tripeptide Gly-Leu-MetNH2 but failed to hydrolyse neurokinin B. Pig brain striatal synaptic membranes hydrolysed neurokinin B producing a similar pattern of products as did endopeptidase-24.11. Substantial inhibition of this activity was achieved with the selective inhibitor phosphoramidon. A combination of phosphoramidon and bestatin abolished the hydrolysis of neurokinin B by synaptic membranes. Thus, a bestatin-sensitive aminopeptidase may play a role in the synaptic metabolism of neurokinin B in addition to endopeptidase-24.11. This aminopeptidase appears to be distinct from aminopeptidase N (EC 3.4.11.2).     

The hydrolysis of brain and atrial natriuretic peptides by porcine choroid plexus is attributable to endopeptidase-24.11.

The hydrolysis of the porcine 26-residue brain natriuretic peptide (BNP-26) and its counterpart human 28-residue atrial natriuretic peptide (alpha-hANP) by pig membrane preparations and purified membrane peptidases was studied. When the two peptides were incubated with choroid plexus membranes, the products being analysed by h.p.l.c., alpha-hANP was degraded twice as fast as BNP. The h.p.l.c. profiles of alpha-hANP hydrolysis, in short incubations with choroid plexus membranes, yielded alpha hANP' as the main product, this having been previously shown to be the result of hydrolysis at the Cys7-Phe8 bond. In short incubations this cleavage was inhibited 84% by 1 microM-phosphoramidon, a specific inhibitor of endopeptidase-24.11. BNP-26 was hydrolysed by choroid plexus membranes, kidney microvillar membranes and purified endopeptidase-24.11 in a manner that yielded identical h.p.l.c. profiles. In the presence of phosphoramidon, hydrolysis by the choroid plexus membranes was 94% inhibited. Captopril had no effect and, indeed, no hydrolysis of BNP-26 by peptidyl dipeptidase A (angiotensin-converting enzyme) was observed even after prolonged incubation with the purified enzyme. The stepwise hydrolysis of BNP-26 by endopeptidase-24.11 was investigated by sequencing the peptides produced during incubation. The initial product resulted from hydrolysis at Ser14-Leu15, thereby opening the ring. This product (BNP') was short-lived; further degradation involved hydrolysis at Ile12-Gly13, Arg8-Leu9, Gly17-Leu18, Val22-Leu23, Arg11-Ile12 and Cys4-Phe5. Thus endopeptidase-24.11 is the principal enzyme in renal microvillar and choroid plexus membranes hydrolysing BNP-26 and alpha-hANP.     

Hydrolysis of the synthetic chromophoric hexapeptide Leu-Ser-Phe(NO2)-Nle-Ala-Leu-OMe catalyzed by bovine pepsin A. Dependence on pH and effect of enzyme phosphorylation level

Inactivation of substance P and its C-terminal hexapeptide analog [p-Glu6]substance P6-11 was studied in rat parotid and hypothalamic slices. It was found that in the parotid slice system the decay of substance P induced K+ release occurs concurrently with a decrease in the biologically active concentration of the peptide in the medium. The inactivation was further studied using [p-Glu6]substance P6-11 as substrate in the parotid and in the hypothalamic slice systems. In both tissue preparations the hexapeptide is degraded to small peptide fragments by metalloendopeptidase. Separation of the peptide fragments by high performance liquid chromatography and determination of their amino acid composition showed that in the hypothalamic slice system the major cleavage of the hexapeptide analog occurs between Phe8-Gly9 with minor cleavage sites between Phe7-Phe8 and Gly9-Leu10. In the rat parotid slice system the major cleavage occurs between Gly9-Leu10 with a minor cleavage site between Phe7-Phe8. The degradation of the hexapeptide analog in the hypothalamic system was inhibited 77% and 67% by treatment with 1 mM p-chloromercuriphenylsulfonate and p-chloromercuribenzoate, respectively, whereas in the parotid system these reagents inhibited the degradation of the hexapeptide only by 15% and 8%. These results may indicate that different proteases in the parotid and hypothalamus are involved in degradation of substance P. Kinetic studies, including the use of various inhibitors as well as competition by the peptide hormones somatostatin, LHRH, TRH and Leu-enkephalin-NH2, revealed that in both tissues the hexapeptide analog is a preferred substrate for degradation by protease of considerable specificity towards the C-terminal sequence of substance P. It is suggested that this metalloendopeptidase may be important in the termination of the substance P response.     

The hydrolysis of endothelins by neutral endopeptidase 24.11 (enkephalinase)

Endothelins 1-3 are a family of 21-amino acid peptides whose structure consists of two rings formed by intra-chain disulfide bonds and a linear "COOH-terminal tail." These peptides were originally described on the basis of their potent vasoconstrictor activity. The hydrolytic inactivation of endothelin action has recently been implicated to be attributed, at least in part, to the enzyme neutral endopeptidase 24.11 (Scicli, A. G., Vijayaraghavan, J., Hersh, L., and Carretero, O. (1989) Hypertension 14, 353). The kinetic properties and mode of hydrolysis of the endothelins by this enzyme are reported in this study. The Km for endothelins 1 and 3 hydrolysis is approximately 2 microM while endothelin2 exhibits a 5-fold higher Km. Endothelins 1 and 2 exhibit similar Vmax values while endothelin3 is hydrolyzed considerably more slowly. The initial cleavage site in endothelin1 is at the Ser5-Leu6 bond located within one of the cyclic structures. Thermolysin, a bacterial neutral endopeptidase with a similar substrate specificity to neutral endopeptidase 24.11 initially cleaves endothelin1 between His16-Leu17 which lies within the COOH-terminal linear "tail" portion of the molecule. The cleavage of endothelins 2 and 3 by neutral endopeptidase 24.11 differs from that observed with endothelin1 in that cleavage of these endothelins occurs at Asp18-Ile19 within the linear COOH-terminal tail structure. These results demonstrate that the endothelins are good substrates for neutral endopeptidase 24.11 and suggest that their mode of cleavage is dependent upon both amino acid sequence as well as peptide conformation.     

Changes in Prolyl Endopeptidase During Maturation of Rat Brain and Hydrolysis of Substance P by the Purified Enzyme

We determined changes in prolyl endopeptidase activity in developing rat brain. A new and highly sensitive fluorogenic substrate, 7-(succinyl-Gly-Pro)-4-methylcoumarinamide, was used for determination of the enzyme activity. The enzyme activity per brain increased until 2 weeks of age, and then decreased during maturation. The enzyme was purified about 7800-fold from the brain of the rat at 2 or 3 weeks of age. The enzyme has a pH optimum of 5.8 to 6.5, and an approximate molecular weight of 70,000. The enzyme activity was completely inhibited by low concentrations of diisopropylfluorophosphate and partially inhibited by high concentrations of phenylmethanesulphonylfluoride, which are potent serine protease inhibitors. Moreover, thiolblocking agents and some heavy metals also have a strong effect on the activity. Bacitracin was found to be a potent inhibitor, with an IC50 value of 2.5 x 10(-6) M at 0.5 mM of the substrate. The enzyme was proved to hydrolyze the NH2-terminal tetrapeptide. Arg1-Pro2-Lys3-Pro4, from substance P to produce the heptapeptide, Gln5-Gln6-Phe7-Phe8-Gly9-Leu10-Met11-CONH2. The Km value of the hydrolysis of substance P was 1.0 mM. This enzyme may be related to the regulation of substance P in the brain, and to the development of neurones by forming the tetrapeptide because the tetrapeptide has almost the same effect as substance P on the neurite extension of neuroblastoma.     

Hydrolysis of substance P and its analogs by angiotensin-converting enzyme from rat lung. Characterization of endopeptidase activity of the enzyme

Hydrolysis of substance P and nine kinds of substance P analogs by angiotensin-converting enzyme highly purified from rat lung was examined by using amino-group fluorometry and high-performance liquid chromatography. The enzyme hydrolyzed substance P and several analogs, notwithstanding that they did not contain free C-terminal residues. The analyses of cleavage products separated by high-performance liquid chromatography indicated that the enzyme hydrolyzed substance P and its analogs mainly at the bond between Phe8-Gly9 and also at another bond, possibly between Gly9-Leu10, to a lesser extent by an endopeptidase action, followed by successive release of dipeptides by a dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase action. The analogs that had D-amino acid residues substituted at the presumed cleavage sites were scarcely hydrolyzed. It was further found that (Pyr6)-fragment (6-11) was hydrolyzed by the enzyme more efficiently than the other fragment-type analogs and was cleaved at a single bond by the endopeptidase activity of the enzyme. Therefore, this fragment was used as a substrate in order to characterized the endopeptidase activity of the enzyme by employing fluorometry. The activity was dependent on chloride ion, and was inhibited by captopril, MK-421, and EDTA. Thus, the endopeptidase activity of the enzyme showed properties similar to those of the dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase activity of the enzyme.     

Comparison of kinetics of active tetracycline uptake and active tetracycline efflux in sensitive and plasmid RP4-containing Pseudomonas putida.

Membrane vesicles prepared from tetracycline-sensitive cells of Pseudomonas putida took up tetracycline by an active transport system with an apparent Km of 2.5 mM and a Vmax of 50 nmol min-1 mg protein-1. In contrast, resistance determinant RP4-containing P. putida had an active high-affinity efflux system for tetracycline with a Km of 2.0 to 3.54 microM and a Vmax of 0.15 nmol min-1 mg protein-1. Thus, the efflux system of tetracycline-resistant P. putida(RP4) had an average of 1,000-fold greater affinity for tetracycline than the influx system of tetracycline-sensitive cells. From these results, it is clear that a major mechanism of tetracycline resistance in RP4-containing P. putida is an active tetracycline efflux mechanism. There was also evidence for a second tetracycline efflux system with low affinity for tetracycline n P. putida(RP4). This efflux system had a Km of 0.25 mM and a Vmax of 1.45 nmol min-1 protein-1. Whether this low-affinity efflux system was also present in tetracycline-sensitive P. putida could not be discerned from these experiments.     

Hydrolysis of substance p and neurotensin by converting enzyme and neutral endopeptidase

Angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) and neutral endopeptidase ("enkephalinase"; NEP), were purified to homogeneity from human kidney. NEP cleaved substance P (SP) at Gln6-Phe7,-Phe8, and Gly9-Leu10 and neurotensin (NT) at Pro10-Tyr11 and Tyr11-Ile12. NEP hydrolyzed 0.1 mM SP, NT and their C-terminal fragments at the following rates (mumol/min/mg): SP1-11 = 7.8, SP4-11 = 11.7, SP5-11 = 15.4, SP6-11 = 15.6, SP8-11 = 6.7, NT1-13 = 2.9, and NT8-13 = 4.0. Purified ACE rapidly inactivated SP as measured in bioassay. HPLC analysis showed that ACE cleaved SP at Phe8-Gly9 and Gly9-Leu10 to release C-terminal tri- and dipeptide (ratio = 4:1). The hydrolysis was Cl- dependent and inhibited by captopril. ACE released mainly C-terminal tripeptide from SP methyl ester, but only dipeptide from SP free acid. Modification of arginine residues in ACE with cyclohexanedione or butanedione similarly inhibited hydrolysis of SP, bradykinin and Bz-Gly-Phe-Arg (80-93%) indicating an active site arginine is required for hydrolysis of SP. ACE hydrolyzed NT at Tyr11-Ile12 to release Ile12-Leu13. SP, NT and their derivatives (0.1 mM) were cleaved by ACE at the following rates (mumol/min/mg): SP1-11 = 1.2, SP methyl ester = 0.7, SP free acid = 8.5, SP4-11 = 2.4, SP5-11 = 0.9, SP6-11 = 1.4, SP8-11 = 0, NT1-13 = 0.2, and NT8-13 = 1.3. Peptide substrates were used as inhibitors of ACE (substrate = FA-Phe-Gly-Gly) and NEP (substrate = Leu5-enkephalin).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and neprilysin hydrolyze neuropeptides: a brief history, the beginning and follow-ups to early studies

Our investigations started when synthetic bradykinin became available and we could characterize two enzymes that cleaved it: kininase I or plasma carboxypeptidase N and kininase II, a peptidyl dipeptide hydrolase that we later found to be identical with the angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE). When we noticed that ACE can cleave peptides without a free C-terminal carboxyl group (e.g., with a C-terminal nitrobenzylamine), we investigated inactivation of substance P, which has a C-terminal Met(11)-NH(2). The studies were extended to the hydrolysis of the neuropeptide, neurotensin and to compare hydrolysis of the same peptides by neprilysin (neutral endopeptidase 24.11, CD10, NEP). Our publication in 1984 dealt with ACE and NEP purified to homogeneity from human kidney. NEP cleaved substance P (SP) at Gln(6)-Phe(7), Phe(7)[see text]-Phe(8), and Gly(9)-Leu(10) and neurotensin (NT) at Pro(10)-Tyr(11) and Tyr(11)-Ile(12). Purified ACE also rapidly inactivated SP as measured in bioassay. HPLC analysis showed that ACE cleaved SP at Phe(8)-Gly(9) and Gly(9)-Leu(10) to release C-terminal tri- and dipeptide (ratio = 4:1). The hydrolysis was Cl(-) dependent and inhibited by captopril. ACE released only dipeptide from SP free acid. ACE hydrolyzed NT at Tyr(11)-Ile(12) to release Ile(12)-Leu(13). Then peptide substrates were used to inhibit ACE hydrolyzing Fa-Phe-Gly-Gly and NEP cleaving Leu(5)-enkephalin. The K(i) values in microM were as follows: for ACE, bradykinin = 0.4, angiotensin I = 4, SP = 25, SP free acid = 2, NT = 14, and Met(5)-enkephalin = 450, and for NEP, bradykinin = 162, angiotensin I = 36, SP = 190, NT = 39, Met(5)-enkephalin = 22. These studies showed that ACE and NEP, two enzymes widely distributed in the body, are involved in the metabolism of SP and NT. Below we briefly survey how NEP and ACE in two decades have gained the reputation as very important factors in health and disease. This is due to the discovery of more endogenous substrates of the enzymes and to the very broad and beneficial therapeutic applications of ACE inhibitors.     

L-malate transport and proton symport in vesicles prepared from Pseudomonas putida

In vesicles from glucose-grown Pseudomonas putida, L-malate is transported by nonspecific physical diffusion. L-Malate also acts as an electron donor and generates a proton motive force (delta p) of 129 mV which is composed of a membrane potential (delta psi) of 60 mV and a delta pH of 69 mV. In contrast, vesicles from succinate-grown cells transport L-malate by a carrier-mediated system with a Km value of 14.3 mM and a Vmax of 313 nmol X mg protein-1 X min-1, generate no delta psi, delta pH, or delta p when L-malate is the electron donor, and produce an extravesicular alkaline pH during the transport of L-malate. A kinetic analysis of this L-malate-induced proton transport gives a Km value of 16 mM and a Vmax of 667 nmol H+ X mg protein-1 X min-1. This corresponds to a H+/L-malate ratio of 2.1. The failure to generate a delta p in these vesicles is considered, therefore, to be consistent with the induction in succinate-grown cells of an electrogenic proton symport L-malate transport system.     

The metabolism of neuropeptides. The hydrolysis of peptides, including enkephalins, tachykinins and their analogues, by endopeptidase-24.11.

Endopeptidase-24.11 (EC 3.4.24.11), purified to homogeneity from pig kidney, was shown to hydrolyse a wide range of neuropeptides, including enkephalins, tachykinins, bradykinin, neurotensin, luliberin and cholecystokinin. The sites of hydrolysis of peptides were identified, indicating that the primary specificity is consistent with hydrolysis occurring at bonds involving the amino group of hydrophobic amino acid residues. Of the substrates tested, the amidated peptide substance P is hydrolysed the most efficiently (Km = 31.9 microM; kcat. = 5062 min-1). A free alpha-carboxy group at the C-terminus of a peptide substrate is therefore not essential for efficient hydrolysis by the endopeptidase. A large variation in kcat./Km values was observed among the peptide substrates studied, a finding that reflects a significant influence of amino acid residues, remote from the scissile bond, on the efficiency of hydrolysis. These subsite interactions between peptide substrate and enzyme thus confer some degree of functional specificity on the endopeptidase. The inhibition of endopeptidase-24.11 by several compounds was compared with that of pig kidney peptidyldipeptidase A (EC 3.4.15.1). Of the inhibitors examined, only N-[1(R,S)-carboxy-2-phenylethyl]-Phe-p-aminobenzoate inhibited endopeptidase-24.11 but not peptidyldipeptidase. Captopril (D-3-mercapto-2-methylpropanoyl-L-proline), Teprotide (pGlu-Trp-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gln-Ile-Pro-Pro) and MK422 [N-[(S)-1-carboxy-3-phenylpropyl]-L-Ala-L-Pro] were highly selective as inhibitors of peptidyldipeptidase. Although not wholly specific, phosphoramidon was a more potent inhibitor of endopeptidase-24.11 than were any of the synthetic compounds tested.     

Kinetics of iron acquisition from ferric siderophores by Paracoccus denitrificans.

The kinetics of iron accumulation by iron-starved Paracoccus denitrificans during the first 2 min of exposure to 55Fe-labeled ferric siderophore chelates is described. Iron is acquired from the ferric chelate of the natural siderophore L-parabactin in a process exhibiting biphastic kinetics by Lineweaver-Burk analysis. The kinetic data for 1 microM less than [Fe L-parabactin] less than 10 microM fit a regression line which suggests a low-affinity system (Km = 3.9 +/- 1.2 microM, Vmax = 494 pg-atoms of 55Fe min-1 mg of protein-1), whereas the data for 0.1 microM less than or equal to [Fe L-parabactin] less than or equal to 1 microM fit another line consistent with a high-affinity system (Km = 0.24 +/- 0.06 microM, Vmax = 108 pg-atoms of 55Fe min-1 mg of protein-1). The Km of the high-affinity uptake is comparable to the binding affinity we had previously reported for the purified ferric L-parabactin receptor protein in the outer membrane. In marked contrast, ferric D-parabactin data fit a single regression line corresponding to a simple Michaelis-Menten process with comparatively low affinity (Km = 3.1 +/- 0.9 microM, Vmax = 125 pg-atoms of 55Fe min-1 mg of protein-1). Other catecholamide siderophores with an intact oxazoline ring derived from L-threonine (L-homoparabactin, L-agrobactin, and L-vibriobactin) also exhibit biphasic kinetics with a high-affinity component similar to ferric L-parabactin. Circular dichroism confirmed that these ferric chelates, like ferric L-parabactin, exist as the lambda enantiomers. The A forms ferric parabactin (ferrin D- and L-parabactin A), in which the oxazoline ring is hydrolyzed to the open-chain threonyl structure, exhibit linear kinetics with a comparatively high Km (1.4 +/- 0.3 microM) and high Vmax (324 pg-atoms of 55Fe min-1 of protein-1). Furthermore, the marked stereospecificity seen between ferric D- and L-parabactins is absent; i.e., iron acquisition from ferric parabactin A is non stereospecific. The mechanistic implications of these findings in relation to a stereospecific high-affinity binding followed by a nonstereospecific postreceptor processing is discussed.     

Conversion of Neuropeptide K to Neurokinin A and Vesicular Colocalization of Neurokinin A and Substance P in Neurons of the Guinea Pig Small Intestine

The highest concentration of neurokinin A-like immunoreactivity and substance P-like immunoreactivity in the guinea pig small intestine was associated with the myenteric plexus-containing longitudinal muscle layer. Chromatographic analysis of extracts of this tissue demonstrated the presence of neurokinin A and neuropeptide K but the probable absence of neurokinin B. A fraction of synaptic vesicles of density 1.133 +/- 0.003 g/ml was prepared from the myenteric plexus-containing tissue by density gradient centrifugation in a zonal rotor and was enriched 29 +/- 12-fold in the concentration of neurokinin A-like immunoreactivity and 43 +/- 13-fold in the concentration of substance P-like immunoreactivity. This fraction was separated from the fraction of vasoactive intestinal peptide-containing vesicles (density, 1.154 +/- 0.009 g/ml). Chromatographic analysis of lysates of the vesicles indicated the presence of neurokinin A but not neuropeptide K. It is postulated that beta-pre-protachykinin is processed to substance P, neurokinin A, and neuropeptide K in the cell bodies of myenteric plexus neurons but that conversion of neuropeptide K to neurokinin A takes place during packaging into storage vesicles for axonal transport. The data are consistent with the proposal that neurokinin A and substance P are stored in the same synaptic vesicle, but the possibility of cosedimentation of different vesicles of very similar density cannot be excluded.     

Metabolism of opioid peptides by cerebral microvascular aminopeptidase M

Aminopeptidase M (EC 3.4.11.2), which can degrade low molecular weight opioid peptides, has been reported in both peripheral vasculature and in the CNS. Thus, we have studied the metabolism of opioid peptides by membrane-bound aminopeptidase M derived from cerebral microvessels of hog and rabbit. Both hog and rabbit microvessels were found to contain membrane-bound aminopeptidase M. At neutral pH, microvessels preferentially degraded low molecular weight opioid peptides by hydrolysis of the N-terminal Tyr1-Gly2 bond. Degradation was inhibited by amastatin (I50 = 0.2 microM) and bestatin (10 microM), but not by a number of other peptidase inhibitors including captopril and phosphoramidon. Rates of degradation were highest for the shorter peptides (Met5- and Leu5-enkephalin) whereas beta-endorphin was nearly completely resistant to N-terminal hydrolysis. Km values for the microvascular aminopeptidase also decreased significantly with increasing peptide length (Km = 91.3 +/- 4.9 and 28.9 +/- 3.5 microM for Met5-enkephalin and Met5-enkephalin-Arg6-Phe7, respectively). Peptides known to be present within or in close proximity to cerebral vessels (e.g., neurotensin and substance P) competitively inhibited enkephalin degradation (Ki = 20.4 +/- 2.5 and 7.9 +/- 1.6 microM, respectively). These data suggest that cerebral microvascular aminopeptidase M may play a role in vivo in modulating peptide-mediated local cerebral blood flow, and in preventing circulating enkephalins from crossing the blood-brain barrier.     

Peptidases in dog-ileum circular and longitudinal smooth-muscle plasma membranes. Their relative contribution to the metabolism of neurotensin

We established the content in neuropeptide-metabolizing peptidases present in highly purified plasma membranes prepared from the circular and longitudinal muscles of dog ileum. Activities were measured by the use of fluorigenic substrates and the identities of enzymes were confirmed by the use of specific peptidase inhibitors. Endopeptidase 24.11, angiotensin-converting enzyme, post-proline dipeptidyl aminopeptidase and aminopeptidases were found in both membrane preparations. Proline endopeptidase was only detected in circular smooth muscle plasma membranes while pyroglutamyl-peptide hydrolase was not observed in either tissue. The relative contribution of these peptidases to the inactivation of neurotensin was assessed. The enzymes involved in the primary inactivating cleavages occurring on the neurotensin molecule were as follows. In both membrane preparations, endopeptidase 24.11 was responsible for the formation of neurotensin-(1-11) and contributed to the formation of neurotensin-(1-10); a recently purified neurotensin-degrading neutral metallopeptidase was also involved in the formation of neurotensin-(1-10). A carboxypeptidase-like activity hydrolysed neurotensin at the Ile12-Leu13 peptide bond, leading to the formation of neurotensin-(1-12). Proline endopeptidase and endopeptidase 24.15 only occurred in circular muscle plasma membranes, yielding neurotensin-(1-7) and neurotensin-(1-8), respectively. In addition, the secondary processing of neurotensin degradation products was catalyzed by the following peptidases. In circular and longitudinal muscle membranes, angiotensin-converting enzyme converted neurotensin-(1-10) into neurotensin-(1-8) and tyrosine resulted from the rapid hydrolysis of neurotensin-(11-13) by bestatin-sensitive aminopeptidases. A post-proline dipeptidyl aminopeptidase activity converted neurotensin-(9-13) into neurotensin-(11-13) in circular muscle plasma membranes. The mechanism of neurotensin inactivation occurring in these membranes will be compared to that previously established for membranes from central origin.