Comparative susceptibility and immune responses of Asian and European honey bees to the American foulbrood pathogen,Paenibacillus larvae

American foulbrood (AFB) disease is caused by Paenibacillus larvae. Currently, this pathogen is widespread in the European honey bee— Apis mellifera. However, little is known about infectivity and pathogenicity of P. lan'ae in the Asiatic cavity-nesting honey bees, Apis cerana. Moreover, comparative knowledge of P. larvae infectivity and pathogenicity between both honey bee species is scarce. In this study, we examined susceptibility, larval mortality, survival rate and expression of genes encoding antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) including defensin, apidaecin, abaecin, and hymenoptaecin in A. mellifera and A. cerana when infected with P. larvae. Our results showed similar effects of P. larvae on the survival rate and patterns of AMP gene expression in both honey bee species when bee larvae are infected with spores at the median lethal concentration (LC5 0 ) for A. mellifera. All AMPs of infected bee larvae showed significant upregulation compared with noninfected bee larvae in both honey bee species. However, larvae of A. cerana were more susceptible than A. mellifera when the same larval ages and spore concentration of P. larvae were used. It also appears that A. cerana showed higher levels of AMP expression than A. mellifera. This research provides the first evidence of survival rate, LC50 and immune response profiles of Asian honey bees, A. cerana, when infected by P. larvae in comparison with the European honey bee, A. mellifera.     

Acute paralysis viruses of the honey bee

<正>The alarming decline of honey bee(Apis mellifera)colonies in the last decade drove the attention and research to several pathogens of the honey bee including viruses.Viruses challenge the development of healthy and robust colonies since they manage to prevail in an asymptomatic mode and reemerge in acute infections following external stresses,as well as they are able to infect new healthy colonies(de Miranda J R,et al.,2010a;de Miranda J R,et al.,2010b;Di Prisco G,et al.,2013;Nazzi F,et al.,2012;Yang X L,et al.,2005).     

First detection of viruses in africanized honey bees from Peru

<正>Dear Editor,The ability of the Western honey bee,Apis mellifera,to adapt to most climates of the world and the ongoing standardization of colony management has made this species of honey bees the most important species for crop pollination.In recent years,Peru emerged as a main exporter of industrial crops.This industry is mainly concentrated in the Peruvian coastal region,because the local climate permits off-season production     

西方蜜蜂四个亚种酯酶同工酶型和苹果酸脱氢酶Ⅱ同工酶基因型的遗传差异

The esterase (EST) and the malate dehydrogenase Ⅱ (MDHⅡ) isozymes in A. mellifera carpatica (C), A. mellifera ssp.(D), “Zhejiang Agricultural University No.1” A. mellifera ligustica (Ea) and A. mellifera carnica (K), and the genotypes of MDHⅡ isozymes in four subspecies of A. mellifera were analysed by IEF PAGE. The results indicate that the four subspecies of A. mellifera showed the same EST zymogram, while A. cerana showed a different EST zymogram, which suggests that the genotypes of EST isozymes in A. mellifera are different from those in A. cerana. The genotypes of the MDHⅡ isozymes in four subspecies of A. mellifera were aa, ab, ac, bb, bc and cc. The C and Ea subspecies exhibited high homozyosity, while D and K displayed high heterozyosity. The allele b appeared to be the highest frequency in C, while the allele c had the highest frequency in Ea. The frequencies of the alleles a, b and c in sub species D were very similar. The alleles a and c were common, while allele b was rare in sub species K. There were highly significant differences in genotype frequencies, allele frequencies, homozyosity and heterozyosity among these four subspecies.     

Resin foraging dynamics in Varroa destructor-infested hives: a case of medication of kin?

t Social insects have evolved colony behavioral, physiological, and organiza. tional adaptations (social immunity) to reduce the risks of parasitization and/or disease transmission. The collection of resin from various plants and its use in the hive as propolis is a clear example of behavioral defense. For Apis mellifera, an increased propolis content in the hive may correspond to variations in the microbial load of the colony and to a downregulation of an individual bee's immune response. However, many aspects of such antimicrobial mechanism still need to be clarified. Assuming that bacterial and fungal infection mechanisms differ from the action of a parasite, we studied the resin collection dynamics in Varroa destructor-infested honeybee colonies. Comparative experiments involving hives with different mite infestation levels were conducted in order to assess the amount of resin collected and propolis quality within the hive, over a 2-year period (2014 and 2015). Our study demonstrates that when A. mellifera colonies are under stress because of Varroa infestation, an increase in the number of resin foragers is recorded, even if a general intensification of the foraging activity is not observed. A reduction in the total polyphenolic content in propolis produced in infested versus uninfested hives was also noticed. Considering that different propolis types show varying levels of inhibition against a variety of honey bee pathogens in vitro, it would be very important to study the effects against Varroa of two diverse types of propolis: from Varroa-free and from Varroa-infested hives.     

Morphometric and genetic variation of small dwarf honeybees Apis andreniformis Smith, 1858 in Thailand

The small dwarf honey bee, Apis andreniformis, is a rare and patchily distributed Apis spp. and is one of the native Thai honey bees, yet little is known about its biodiversity. Thirty （27 Thai and 3 Malaysian） and 37 （32 Thai and 5 Malaysian） colonies of A. andreniformis were sampled for morphometric and genetic analysis, respectively. For morphometric analysis, 20 informative characters were used to determine the variation. After plotting the factor scores, A. andreniformis from across Thailand were found to belong to one group, a notion further supported by a cluster analysis generated dendrogram. However, clinal pattems in groups of bee morphometric characters were revealed by linear regression analysis. The body size of bees increases from South to North but decreases from West to East, although this may reflect altitude rather than longitude. Genetic variation was determined by sequence analysis of a 520 bp fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit b （cytb）. DNA polymorphism among bees from the mainland of Thailand is lower than that from Phuket Island and Chiang Mal. Although two main different groups of bees were obtained from phylogenetic trees constructed by neighbor-joining and unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages programs, no clear geographic signal was present. Thus, while the minor group （B） contained all of the samples from the only island sampled （Phuket in the south）, but not the southem mainland colonies, it also contained samples from the far northem inland region of Chiang Mai, other samples of which were firmly rooted in the major group （A）.     

Biology and control of the fruit borer, Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley on litchi （Litchi chinensis Sonn.） in northern Thailand

Fruit and leaf shoot of litchi （Litchi chinensis） infestation by naturally occurring populations of the fruit bprer, Conopomorpha sinensis larvae and C. sinensis parasitization rates were determined in litchi orchards in northern Thailand at high （ca. 1 400 m ASL） and low （ca. 800 m ASL） elevations with different, non-overlapping fruiting seasons. In addition, spray applications of Bacillus thuringiensis var. aizawai, the natural compound spinosad and the chemical pesticide imidacloprid were conducted in the field to test the effects of these agents on C. sinensis fruit infestation rate. Fruit infestation rate and fruit growth, studied in a low elevation orchard, were sigmoidal and showed a highly significant positive correlation （P ≤ 0.01）. Leaf shoot infestation rate in the low elevation orchard decreased in the course of the fruiting season （March until May）, but increased in the high elevation orchard, where no fruits were present within the same period of time. Together, these results indicate that females of C. sinensis clearly prefer fruits over shoots for oviposition. If no fruits are available, which was the case in the high elevation orchard during that time, they are constrained to lay their eggs on shoots. The parasitization rate of C. sinensis larvae in untreated fruits was 54.3%. The parasitoid species were Chelonus chailini （90.8%） and Phanerotoma sp. （9.2%）. In the leaf shoots, C. sinensis was found to be parasitized by Phanerotoma sp. and Apanteles briareus. The applications of the different active agents had no significant effect on C. sinensis fruit infestation compared to the untreated control. Besides the cryptic life of the larvae, this is most probably explained by the fact that C. sinensis has several generations during the fruiting season. Because of the high parasitization rates recorded, an alternative and more effective control measure than the application of pesticides might be the augmentative release of parasitoids.     

笼养红斑羚生态生物学的初步观察

This study presents the results of a demographic analysis of 20 years of birth and death records of red gorals kept at the Shanghai Zoo.The age of the first successful breeding,sex ratio at birth,seasonality of reproduction and mortality rate are presented.The females or males of red goral born in captivity can give their first birth at the age of 2 or 3 separately.The births mainly occurred from May to July and peaked in June.Ratio of females to males at birth was 2.36:1.1 The mortality rate for infants and adults were 23.1% and 11.8%,respectively while there was no sub-adult death recorded during the 20 years period.There was a definite relation between mortality rate and seasons and mainly in July.     

SOME NEW SPECIES OF RHOPALOCERA IN CHINA. Ⅲ

In the present paper, 1 new genus, 3 new species and 1 new subspecies of Lycae-nidae are described. The specimens here dealt with were collected by entomologists during their expedi-tions to the Sinkiang Province in the years 1957-1960. The diagnostic characters of the new genus, species and subspecies are as follows:     

Effect of five diatomaceous earth formulations against Tribofium castaneum （Coleoptera： Tenebrionidae）, Oryzaephflus surinamensis （Coleoptera： Silvanidae） and Rhyzopertha dominica （Coleoptera： Bostrychidae）

Laboratory bioassays were conducted to determine the effect of food source on the survival of Tribolium castaneum Herbst, Oryzaephilus surinamensis L. and Rhyzopertha dominica F., after exposure to five diatomaceous earth （DE） formulations： Protect-It, Insecto, Perma-GuardTM, Dryacide and SilicoSec. Adults of these species were exposed to DEs at the rate of 0.5 mg/cm^2 for 1 day on filter paper inside plastic Petri dishes. After exposure, the initial mortality was counted and live individuals of the three species were held for a week in glass vials containing 50 mg wheat flour, rice and whole wheat, respectively. In the second experiment, after 1 day exposure to DEs, beetles were transferred to Petri dishes without food and held for a week to determine if the presence of food source would decrease the mortality of beetles. Experiments were carried out at 27℃ and 55% RH in the dark. The initial mortality in both of the experiments reached 100% for the three species exposed to Protect-It and in the case ofR. dominica and O. surinamensis exposed to Dryacide. In contrast, low level of mortality （〈 10%） was observed for T. castaneum exposed to Perma-GuardTM and Insecto. The mortality after the post-treatment period on food was decreased for the three species exposed to Perma-GuardTM and in the case of T. castaneum and R. dominica exposed to Insecto and SilicoSec. Adults of O. surinamensis were the most susceptible followed by R. dominica and 100% adult mortality was obtained, whereas T. castaneum were the least susceptible beetles to DEs. Protect-It and Dryacide were the most efficient DE formulations and can be used effectively in a stored grain integrated pest management program.     

Assessing the sensitivity of Melanoplus frigidus （Orthoptera： Acrididae） to different weather conditions＂ A modeling approach focussing on development times

The temperature and soil moisture conditions as well as vegetation patterns were studied to describe the habitat and to model the life cycle of Melanoplusfrigidus, a true alpine grasshopper of the Scandes. In the low alpine belt of the Norwegian Scandes the species colonizes only the warmest microhabitats with maximum soil surface temperatures of 31℃. Vegetation of these habitats consists of shrub-rich heath dominated by Vaccinium myrtillus and Calluna vulgaris. Using continuously measured temperature data, the development times for four different seasons were modeled and related to field observations. The maximum delay of adult molt was estimated to amount to 3 weeks, the delay being determined by the variation in spring temperature conditions between different years. The possibilities of using M. frigidus as an indicator organism of climate change effects on alpine zoo-coenoses of the Scandes are discussed.     

Responses of Caryopsis Germination, Seedling Emergence, and Development to Sand Water Content of Agropyron cristatum （L.） Gaertn. and Bromus inermis Leyss.

Responses of caryopsis germination, seedling emergence, and development of Agropyron cristatum （L.） Gaertn. （Gramineae） and Bromus inermis Leyss. （Gramineae）, two dominant perennial grasses in the Otindag Sandland of China, to different sand water content （SWC; 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 12%, 16%, and 20%） were studied comparatively. The results showed that the germination responses of the two grasses to SWC were similar （i.e. caryopses could not germinate when the SWC was below 3%; at SWC ranging from 3% to 12%, the higher the SWC, the higher the germination percentage; and at a SWC of 12%-20%, germination reached similarly high percentages）. At a sand burial depth of 0.5 cm, the threshold of SWC for seedling emergence was 6% forA. cristatum and 8% forB. inermis; at 12%-20% SWC, the seedling emergence of both species reached similarly high percentages. The seedling growth responses of these two species to SWC gradients were different. For A. cristatum, the biomass of seedlings increased with SWC from 6% to 12%, and decreased with SWC from 12% to 20%. For B. inermis, the biomass of seedlings always increased with SWC from 8% to 20%. The results also showed that the seedlings of both species allocated more biomass to the roots with decreases in SWC. The SWC changes from April to October in natural microhabitats of both species suggested that the SWC may play an important role in caryopsis germination, seedling emergence, and the growth characteristics of the two grasses. The responses of caryopsis germination, seedling emergence, and the growth characteristics of these two species to SWC may determine their distribution pattems in the Otindag Sandland.     

Contribution of Root Respiration to Total Soil Respiration in a Leymus chinensis （Trin.） Tzvel, Grassland of Northeast China

The loss of carbon through root respiration Is an Important component of grassland carbon budgets. However, few data are available concerning the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration in grasslands in China. We Investigated seasonal variations of soil respiration rate, root blomaaa, microbial blomaaa C and organic C content of the soil In a semi-arid Leymus chinensis （Trin.） Tzvel. grassland of northeast China during the 2002 growing season （from May to September）. The linear regression relationship between soil respiration rate and root blomaaa was used to determine the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration. Soil respiration rate ranged from 2.5 to 11.9 g C/m^2 per d with the maximum in late June and minimum In September. The microbial blomaaa C and organic C content of the soil ranged from 0.3 to 1.5 g C/m^2 and from 29 to 34 g C/kg respectively. Root blomaaa had two peaks, In early June （1.80 kg/m^2） and mid-August （1.73 kg/m^2）. Root respiration rate peaked In mid-August （6.26 g C/m^2 per d）, whereas microbial respiration rate peaked In late June （7.43 g C/m^2 per d）. We estimated that the contribution of root respiration to total soil respiration during the growing season ranged from 38% to 76%.     

Response of land use/coverage change to hydrological dynamics at watershed scale in the Loess Plateau of China

In this study Qiaozidong and Qiaozixi watersheds in Loess Plateau were selected as the case to investigate the effects of land use/coverage change on hydrological dynamics. The results showed that the runoff coefficient of controlled watershed reduced by about 50%, 85%, 90%, respectively, in wet, normal and dry years in comparison with that of uncontrolled watershed. The average runoff coefficient reduced by 73.6% during the period of 1995–2004 compared with that in the previous period of 1986–1994 for land use in controlled watershed. And the impacts of land use and vegetation changes on runoff were strengthened in response to the increasing rainfall. Additionally, the impacts of land use/coverage change on runoff yield are characterized by seasonal fluctuation. The maximum monthly runoff reduction in the both watersheds occurred in May, which was consistent with the period of the maximum land coverage appeared. Finally, when the rainfall intensity reached a certain threshold, the variance of flood peak in two watersheds reduced, which showed that the effects of forest on flood weakened. The flood peak discharge frequencies indicated that peak discharge would respond to the land use and vegetation change obviously on condition that there were the same frequencies of rainfall intensity in the earlier and later periods.     

Response of land use/coverage change to hydrological dynamics at watershed scale in the Loess Plateau of China

In this study Qiaozidong and Qiaozixi watersheds in Loess Plateau were selected as the case to investigate the effects of land use/coverage change on hydrological dynamics. The results showed that the runoff coefficient of controlled watershed reduced by about 50%, 85%, 90%, respectively, in wet, normal and dry years in comparison with that of uncontrolled watershed. The average runoff coefficient reduced by 73.6% during the period of 1995–2004 compared with that in the previous period of 1986–1994 for land use in controlled watershed. And the impacts of land use and vegetation changes on runoff were strengthened in response to the increasing rainfall. Additionally, the impacts of land use/coverage change on runoff yield are characterized by seasonal fluctuation. The maximum monthly runoff reduction in the both watersheds occurred in May, which was consistent with the period of the maximum land coverage appeared. Finally, when the rainfall intensity reached a certain threshold, the variance of flood peak in two watersheds reduced, which showed that the effects of forest on flood weakened. The flood peak discharge frequencies indicated that peak discharge would respond to the land use and vegetation change obviously on condition that there were the same frequencies of rainfall intensity in the earlier and later periods.     

Association of Varroa destructor females in multiply infested cells of the honeybee Apis mellifera

The genetic diversity of Varroa destructor (Anderson &Trueman)is limited outside its natural range due to population bottlenecks and its propensity to inbreed.In light of the arms race between V.destructor and its honeybee (Apis mellifera L.)host, any mechanism enhancing population admixture of the mite may be favored.One way that admixture can occur is when two genetically dissimilar mites coinvade a brood cell, with the progeny of the foundresses admixing.We determined the relatedness of 393 pairs of V.destructor foundresses,each pair collected from a single bee brood cell (n =five colonies).We used six microsatellites to identify the genotypes of mites coinvading a cell and calculated the frequency of pairs with different or the same genotypes.We found no deviation from random coinvasion,but the frequency of cells infested by mites with different genotypes was high.This rate of recombination,coupled with a high transmission rate of mites,homogenized the allelic pool of mites within the apiary.     

Effect of planting date and nitrogen fertilization on photosynthesis and soluble carbohydrate contents of cotton in relation to silverleaf whitefly （Bemisia tabaci biotype “B”） populations

The impacts of planting date and nitrogen fertilization on cotton （Gossypium hirsutum L.） photosynthesis and soluble carbohydrate contents in relation to silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia tabaci （Gennadius） biotype “B”, populations were examined in field experiments. Cotton planted in late April and early June was treated with 0, 112, 168 and 224 kg/N hectare in soil using urea fertilizer. The mean photosynthetic rate of April-planted cotton was 4%-20% higher than that of June-planted cotton early in the season, but 10%- 18% lower than that of June-planted cotton late in the season. The photosynthetic rates for both planting dates were positively correlated with levels of added nitrogen. While levels of glucose for both planting dates were positively correlated with nitrogen levels, fructose and sucrose levels were not. The mean levels of fructose were up to 40% lower, while that of sucrose were up to 59% higher, in April-planted cotton than in June-planted cotton. Levels of photosynthetic rate or stomatal conductance were not correlated with adult whitefly densities for either planting date. Levels of glucose and fructose were positively correlated with whitefly densities only for June-planted cotton late in the season.     

意蜂王浆生产性能形态学遗传标记的研究

测定19只工蜂头部咽下腺的两条腺体长度和重量,经生统t检验,发现同一工蜂的左、右两条咽下腺长度、重量差异都不显著（P＜0.05）。测定11群 "浙农大1号"意蜂(Apis mellifera ligustica)的330只工蜂的头重、体重、头体重比、咽下腺小囊数和咽下腺长度。在2001年3月30日至4月26日浙江淳安的油菜和紫云英花期测定试验蜂群的王浆产量,分析工蜂头重、头体重比、咽下腺小囊数和咽下腺长度与每千克蜂的王浆产量之间的相关性,发现咽下腺长度与王浆产量的相关性最大,小囊数次之,咽下腺长度可作为意蜂王浆生产性能较理想的形态学遗传标记。 Abstract:The lengths of hypopharyngeal glands (HG) from the left and right side were determined in 19 workers of honeybee(Apis mellifera ligustica).There were no significant differences (P＜0.05) in length between the left and the right in one worker′s hypopharyngeal gland.Three hundred and thirty workers were collected from eleven colonies of "ZND No.1" Italian honeybee(Apis mellifera ligustica) respectively.Head weight,body weight,ratio between head weight and body weight,bursa number and length of hypopharyngeal gland(HG)were tested in these samples.Royal jelly productions were determined during the flowing period of rape and Chinese milk retch from March 30 to April 26 in Chun′an County of Zhejiang Province in 2001.The correlation analysis between royal jelly production and head weight,ratio between head weight and body weight,bursa number of HG,and length of HG were conducted.The correlation coefficient between royal jelly production and length of HG was the largest.The correlation coefficient between royal jelly production and bursa number was the second.It was suggested that the length of HG could be used as one of genetic markers for the production performance of royal jelly.     

Teleconnection between the early immigration of brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål) and ENSO indices: implication for its medium- and long-term forecast

Teleconnection between the early immigration of brown planthopper (BPH) and El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) indices from January of two years previously to the current June was investigated to make long-term forecast. The teleconnection results were as follows: ENSO indices which were significantly correlated with the early immigration of BPH were primarily sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) in N3, N4 and N3.4 regions, accounting for 71.8% of the total. Significant ENSO indices from two years and one year before the immigration events had a proportion of about 84%, while those in the current year only accounted for 16.7%. There was significantly negative correlation between the early immigration of BPH and SSTA in each Nino region from two years before to the previous spring, whereas there was significantly positive correlation between these two factors during the period from the previous winter to the current spring. The significant correlation between the early immigration of BPH and SSTA in each Nino region in the last summer and autumn did not show any obvious tendencies. The relationship between the southern oscillation index (SOI) and the early immigration of BPH was opposite to that between the immigration and SSTA in each Nino region. The above mentioned significant ENSO indices were used as key factors to build forecasting models for the early immigration of BPH by step-wise multiple linear regression analysis. Finally, 12 integrated forecasting models were obtained, which could make predictions 3–27 months ahead and had a predictive accuracy of 88.9%.     

Teleconnection between the early immigration of brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens St?l) and ENSO indices: implication for its medium- and long-term forecast

Teleconnection between the early immigration of brown planthopper (BPH) and El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) indices from January of two years previously to the current June was investigated to make long-term forecast. The teleconnection results were as follows: ENSO indices which were significantly correlated with the early immigration of BPH were primarily sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) in N3, N4 and N3.4 regions, accounting for 71.8% of the total. Significant ENSO indices from two years and one year before the immigration events had a proportion of about 84%, while those in the current year only accounted for 16.7%. There was significantly negative correlation between the early immigration of BPH and SSTA in each Nino region from two years before to the previous spring, whereas there was significantly positive correlation between these two factors during the period from the previous winter to the current spring. The significant correlation between the early immigration of BPH and SSTA in each Nino region in the last summer and autumn did not show any obvious tendencies. The relationship between the southern oscillation index (SOI) and the early immigration of BPH was opposite to that between the immigration and SSTA in each Nino region. The above mentioned significant ENSO indices were used as key factors to build forecasting models for the early immigration of BPH by step-wise multiple linear regression analysis. Finally, 12 integrated forecasting models were obtained, which could make predictions 3–27 months ahead and had a predictive accuracy of 88.9%.