Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) variation in the Anastrepha fraterculus cryptic species complex (Diptera,Tephritidae) of the Andean region

The nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) was sequenced for Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann, 1830) originating from 85 collections from the northern and central Andean countries of South America including Argentina (Tucumán), Bolivia, Perú, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela. The ITS1 regions of additional specimens (17 collections) from Central America (México, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Panamá), Brazil, Caribbean Colombia, and coastal Venezuela were sequenced and together with published sequences (Paraguay) provided context for interpretation. A total of six ITS1 sequence variants were recognized in the Andean region comprising four groups. Type I predominates in the southernmost range of Anastrepha fraterculus. Type II predominates in its northernmost range. In the central and northern Andes, the geographic distributions overlap and interdigitate with a strong elevational effect. A discussion of relationships between observed ITS1 types and morphometric types is included.     

New Species and New Records of Dexosarcophaga Townsend (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) from Brazil with a Key to Species of the Subgenus Bezzisca

Dexosarcophaga tupinamba n. sp. is described based on male specimens from the Brazilian states of Pará and Maranhão; Dexosarcophaga bermudezi Silva & Mello-Patiu is newly recorded from Pará and South America; and Dexosarcophaga avispaensis Mello is newly recorded from Pará (new to Brazil). The Brazilian species Dexosarcophaga limitata (Lopes) and Dexosarcophaga pusilla (Lopes) are both recorded from Pará, which are new records from the Brazilian Amazon, Dexosarcophaga aurifacies (Lopes) is newly recorded from the state of Alagoas and Dexosarcophaga carvalhoi (Lopes) is newly recorded from the states of Mato Grosso, Maranhão, and Pará. A key to the identification of males of the subgenus Bezzisca is provided.     

New Glyptodont from the Codore Formation (Pliocene), Falcón State, Venezuela, its relationship with theAsterostemma problem, and the paleobiogeography of the Glyptodontinae

One of the basal Glyptodontidae groups is represented by the Propalaehoplophorinae (late Oligocene — middle Miocene), whose genera (Propalaehoplophorus, Eucinepeltus, Metopotoxus, Cochlops, andAsterostemma) were initially recognized in Argentinian Patagonia. Among these,Asterostemma was characterized by its wide latitudinal distribution, ranging from southernmost (Patagonia) to northernmost (Colombia, Venezuela) South America. However, the generic assignation of the Miocene species from Colombia and Venezuela (A.? acostae, A. gigantea, andA. venezolensis) was contested by some authors, who explicitly accepted the possibility that these species could correspond to a new genus, different from those recognized in southern areas. A new comparative study of taxa from Argentinian Patagonia, Colombia and Venezuela (together with the recognition of a new genus and species for the Pliocene of the latter country) indicates that the species in northern South America are not Propalaehoplophorinae, but represent the first stages in the cladogenesis of the Glyptodontinae glyptodontids, the history of which was heretofore restricted to the late Miocene — early Holocene of southernmost South America. Accordingly, we propose the recognition of the new genusBoreostemma for the species from northern South America and the restriction ofAsterostemma to the Miocene of Patagonia. Thus, the available data indicate that the Glyptodontinae would in fact have arisen in the northernmost regions of this continent. Their arrival to more southerly areas coincides with the acme of the “Age of Southern Plains”. The Propalaehoplophorinae are geographically restricted to Patagonia.     

Geographic distribution and host plants of Raoiella indica and associated mite species in northern Venezuela

The red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), is an invasive pest in the New World, where it is currently considered a serious threat to coconut and banana crops. It was first reported from northern Venezuela in 2007. To determine its current distribution in this country, surveys were carried out from October 2008 to April 2010 on coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), banana (Musa spp.), ornamental plants and weeds in northern Venezuela. Higher population levels of RPM were registered on commercial coconut farms in Falcón and Sucre states but also on other plant species naturally growing along the coastal line in Anzoategui, Aragua, Carabobo, Monagas and Nueva Esparta states. Out of 34 botanical species evaluated, all RPM stages were observed only on eight arecaceous, one musaceous and one streliziaceous species, indicating that the pest developed and reproduced only on these plants. Mite specimens found on weeds were considered spurious events, as immature stages of the pest were never found on these. Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) was the most frequent predatory mite associated with RPM in all sampling sites. The results indicate that RPM has spread to extensive areas of northern Venezuela since its initial detection in Güiria, Sucre state. Considering the report of this pest mite in northern Brazil in the late 2009, additional samplings in southern Venezuela should be carried out, to evaluate the possible presence of RPM also in that region.     

A new species of rhytachne (Poaceae: Andropogoneae) from northern South America

Rhytachne gonzalezii is described and illustrated. It ranges from Apure, Venezuela to Pará, Brazil. It is the third annual species known in this tropical African-American genus. Previously it had been confounded with the perennialR. rottboellioides from which it differs in its habit, branching culms, smaller sessile spikelets and rachis internodes, and awned upper glume.     

Comparison of two populations of the pantropical predator Amblyseius largoensis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) for biological control of Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae)

The red palm mite, Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), was recently introduced in the Americas. It spread quickly throughout coconut palm growing areas, expanding considerably its host range. The invasion of this species has caused high economic impact in several countries. In Brazil, extensive areas are expected to be affected. For logistical reasons and other concerns, chemical control does not seem desirable for the control of this pest in most Latin American countries. Biological control of R. indica by introducing exotic natural enemies seems to be an important control measure to be considered. Surveys in many countries have shown that Amblyseius largoensis (Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) is a very common predator on coconut palms. This study compared the biology of a population of A. largoensis found for a long time in association with R. indica in La Reunion Island (Indian Ocean) with a population from Roraima State (northern Brazil), where R. indica was first found about two and a half years ago. No significant differences were observed between populations in relation to the duration of different immature stages or total survivorship. However, the oviposition period, prey consumption and net reproductive rate were significantly higher for the La Reunion population, warranting further investigation to determine whether that population should be released in Roraima to control the pest.     

Taxonomy of the genus Aspasia Lindley (Orchidaceae: Oncidieae)

The genusAspasia (Orchidaceae: Oncidieae) consists of five species of epiphytic orchids of Central and South America. The genus is compared with closely related genera of the tribe Oncidieae.Aspasia epidendroides is found in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and western Panama.Aspasia principissa is found in central and eastern Panama and adjacent Colombia.Aspasia psittacina is endemic to western Ecuador.Aspasia variegata is found in Colombia, Venezuela, Trinidad, Guyana, Surinam, and Brazil.Aspasia lunata is known only from Brazil.     

Population differentiation of the Chagas disease vector Triatoma maculata (Erichson, 1848) from Colombia and Venezuela

The emerging vector of Chagas disease, Triatoma maculata (Hemiptera, Reduviidae), is one of the most widely distributed Triatoma species in northern South America. Despite its increasing relevance as a vector, no consistent picture of the magnitude of genetic and phenetic diversity has yet been developed. Here, several populations of T. maculata from eleven Colombia and Venezuela localities were analyzed based on the morphometry of wings and the mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 (ND4) gene sequences. Our results showed clear morphometric and genetic differences among Colombian and Venezuelan populations, indicating high intraspecific diversity. Inter‐population divergence is suggested related to East Cordillera in Colombia. Analyses of other populations from Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil from distinct eco‐geographic regions are still needed to understand its systematics and phylogeography as well as its actual role as a vector of Chagas disease.     

Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae): an exploding mite pest in the neotropics

Major infestations of the flat mite species Raoiella indica Hirst affecting bananas, palms and other ornamental plants have been reported from the Caribbean islands, Mexico, FL (USA), Venezuela, Colombia and Brazil. Specimens from these localities were examined using traditional light microscopy and low-temperature scanning electron microscopy techniques. While little is known about the biology of this mite, its recent appearance in the Americas in both commercial coconut and banana plantations has raised concerns about its economic impact as an invasive pest.     

New mite invasions in citrus in the early years of the 21st century

Several mite species commonly attack cultivated citrus around the world. Up to 104 phytophagous species have been reported causing damage to leaves, buds and fruits, but only a dozen can be considered major pests requiring control measures. In recent years, several species have expanded their geographical range primarily due to the great increase in trade and travel worldwide, representing a threat to agriculture in many countries. Three spider mite species (Acari: Tetranychidae) have recently invaded the citrus-growing areas in the Mediterranean region and Latin America. The Oriental red mite, Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein), presumably from the Near East, was detected in southern Spain in 2001. The Texas citrus mite, Eutetranychus banksi (McGregor), is widely distributed in North, Central and South America. It was first reported in Europe in 1999 on citrus in Portugal; afterwards the mite invaded the citrus orchards in southern Spain. In Latin America, the Hindustan citrus mite, Schizotetranychus hindustanicus (Hirst), previously known only from citrus and other host plants in India, was reported causing significant damage to citrus leaves and fruits in Zulia, northwest Venezuela, in the late 1990s. Later, this mite species spread to the southeast being detected on lemon trees in the state of Roraima in northern Brazil in 2008. Whereas damage levels, population dynamics and control measures are relatively well know in the case of Oriental red mite and Texas citrus mite, our knowledge of S. hindustanicus is noticeably scant. In the present paper, information on pest status, seasonal trends and natural enemies in invaded areas is provided for these species, together with morphological data useful for identification. Because invasive species may evolve during the invasion process, comparison of behavior, damage and management options between native and invaded areas for these species will be useful for understanding the invader’s success and their ability to colonize new regions.     

Giant rhinoceros beetle Golofa claviger (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae: Dynastini) is damaging North Brazilian oil palm plantations

The oil palm is an economically important crop cultivated in the North of Brazil. Damage caused by insects is one of the main causes of reduced productivity for the oil palm. Before this research, only the beetles of the family Curculionidae were considered to be oil palm pests in Brazil. However, for the first time, we report on the damage caused by a giant rhinoceros beetle to oil palm plantations in Pará, Brazil. The beetle was identified as Golofa claviger (Linnaeus, 1771), which has a single record in Brazil (Pará) but is widely distributed in South America. The species occurs in an unprecedentedly high abundance of local specimens. The attacks are concentrated on the central cluster of young palms. Feeding behavior is identified as the main cause of the damage as the beetles use their mouthparts to rip the plant tissues, causing wedge-shaped cuts on young fronds that have not yet unfurled. After an attack, the leaflets of the unfurled fronds are partially destroyed.     

First report of the red palm mite, Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae), in Brazil

The presence of the red palm mite, Raoiella indica Hirst, is reported for the first time in Brazil. This invasive mite was found in July 2009 infesting coconut palms and bananas in urban areas of Boa Vista, State of Roraima, in northern Brazil. Comments on the possible pathways of R. indica into the country, present and potential impact of its introduction and mitigating measures to prevent or to delay the mite spread in Brazil are presented.     

New species of Hypolytrum Rich. (Cyperaceae) from the Neotropics

Five new species ofHypolytrum Rich. from South America are described and illustrated.Hypolytrum amorimii andH. jardimii, both of sect.Bullata T. Koyama, are species with pseudopetioles and colored leaves, and endemic to the rain forest of southeastern Brazil.Hypolytrum bahiense (sect.Hypolytrum), a species with a lax synflorescence and two, free and lightly scabridulous floral bracts, is endemic to the rain forest of southeastern Bahia, Brazil.Hypolytrum leptocalamum (sect.Hypolytrum), a species with lax synflorescence and spike ellipsoid to cylindrical, is restricted to area of tepuis in the Guayana Highland (Brazil, Guyana, and Venezuela).Hypolytrum paraense (sect.Hypolytrum), a species with three, partly connate and densely scabridulous floral bracts, is restricted to the rain forest of the Amazon Basin, in the state of Pará, Brazil.     

Crosswise migration by Yellow Warblers,Nearctic‐Neotropical passerine migrants

Yellow Warblers (Setophaga petechia) are abundant breeding birds in North America, but their migratory and non‐breeding biology remain poorly understood. Studies where genetic and isotopic techniques were used identified parallel migration systems and longitudinal segregation among eastern‐ and western‐breeding populations of Yellow Warblers in North America, but these techniques have low spatial resolution. During the 2015 breeding season, we tagged male Yellow Warblers breeding in Maine (N = 10) and Wisconsin (N = 10) with light‐level geolocators to elucidate fine‐scale migratory connectivity within the eastern haplotype of this species and determine fall migration timing, routes, and wintering locations. We recovered seven of 20 geolocators (35%), including four in Maine and three in Wisconsin. The mean duration of fall migration was 49 d with departure from breeding areas in late August and early September and arrival in wintering areas in mid‐October. Most individuals crossed the Gulf of Mexico to Central America before completing the final eastward leg of their migration to northern South America. Yellow Warblers breeding in Maine wintered in north‐central Colombia, west of those breeding in Wisconsin that wintered in Venezuela and the border region between Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. Our results provide an example of crosswise migration, where the more easterly breeding population wintered farther west than the more westerly breeding population (and vice versa), a seldom‐documented phenomenon in birds. Our results confirm earlier work demonstrating that the eastern haplotype of northern Yellow Warblers winters in northern South America, and provide novel information about migratory strategies, timing, and wintering locations of birds from two different populations.     

The Evolutionary History and Genetic Diversity of Kinkajous, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potos flavus</Emphasis> (Carnivora,Procyonidae)

The genus Potos (Procyonidae) is currently recognized as a monotypic genus comprising the single species Potos flavus, the kinkajou. Kinkajous are widely distributed throughout forested habitats of tropical Central and South America, extending from eastern Brazil across central Bolivia, eastern Peru, northern Ecuador, Guianas, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and then through Central America and into western Mexico. The taxonomic history of the species is complex, with seven or eight subspecies historically recognized to acknowledge the phenotypic variation among populations. In this study, the systematics and the evolutionary history of Potos flavus were investigated based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, including specimens from a large range of localities, covering most of the distribution of the species, from central Middle America (Costa Rica and Panama) through South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana). Analyses of 30 Potos flavus sequences showed 27 haplotypes that were grouped in five main clades in all phylogenetic analyses. These clades suggested a high geographic structure with specimens from (1) Costa Rica, (2) Guianas and North Brazil, (3) North Peru, (4) Ecuador and Panama, (5a) interfluves Branco-Negro rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, (5b) Eastern Atlantic Forest, (5c) Amazonian lowlands east Negro river including Bolivia, Peru, and West Brazil. Each of these clades differs from 4.5 % to 9.3 % in their genetic distance estimates, which suggests that the specific status of some of these lineages should be reconsidered. Divergence dating and biogeographic analysis suggested that crown Potos diversified in the Miocene-Pliocene in South America, and geographic barriers, such as savannas and rivers, may have played a significant role in the kinkajou diversification.     

The El Niño southern oscillation and malaria epidemics in South America

A better understanding of the relationship between the El Ni?o Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the climatic anomalies it engenders, and malaria epidemics could help mitigate the world-wide increase in incidence of this mosquito-transmitted disease. The purpose of this paper is to assess the possibility of using ENSO forecasts for improving malaria control. This paper analyses the relationship between ENSO events and malaria epidemics in a number of South American countries (Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela). A statistically significant relationship was found between El Ni?o and malaria epidemics in Colombia, Guyana, Peru, and Venezuela. We demonstrate that flooding engenders malaria epidemics in the dry coastal region of northern Peru, while droughts favor the development of epidemics in Colombia and Guyana, and epidemics lag a drought by 1 year in Venezuela. In Brazil, French Guiana, and Ecuador, where we did not detect an ENSO/malaria signal, non-climatic factors such as insecticide sprayings, variation in availability of anti-malaria drugs, and population migration are likely to play a stronger role in malaria epidemics than ENSO-generated climatic anomalies. In some South American countries, El Ni?o forecasts show strong potential for informing public health efforts to control malaria.     

Ticks (Ixodidae) on humans in South America

Twenty eight species of Ixodidae have been found on man in South America (21 Amblyomma, 1 Boophilus, 2 Dermacentor, 2 Haemaphysalis, 1 Ixodes and 1 Rhipicephalus species). Most of them are rarely found on man. However, three species frequently parasitize humans in restricted areas of Argentina (A. neumanni reported from 46 localities), Uruguay (A. triste from 21 sites) and Argentina–Brazil (A. parvum from 27 localities). The most widespread ticks are A. cajennense (134 localities in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela), A. ovale (37 localities in Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Suriname and Venezuela) and A. oblongoguttatum (28 sites in Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela). Amblyomma aureolatum (18 localities in Argentina, Brazil, French Guiana and Paraguay), A. cajennense, and A. triste are vectors of rickettsioses to man in South America. A better understanding of the respective roles of these and other tick species in transmitting pathogens to humans will require further local investigations. Amblyomma ticks should be the main subjects of these studies followed by species of Boophilus, Dermacentor, Haemaphysalis and Rhipicephalus species. In contrast with North America, Europe and Asia, ticks of the genus Ixodes do not appear to be major players in transmitting diseases to human. Indeed, there is only one record of an Ixodes collected while feeding on man for all South America.     

A new fertile species of Menegazzia and notes on two sorediate species from the Neotropics

Abstract:Menegazzia neotropica sp. nov. is described from upper montane forest remnants and paramos in Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. It is characterized by short-pedicellate apothecia with ridged margins that partly obscure the discs, and by narrow, glossy lobes with brown-black margins. Menegazzia dissecta is recorded from South America for the first time and M. terebrata is recorded from Colombia and Ecuador for the first time.     

Chemical control of the red palm mite, Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) in banana and coconut

The red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica Hirst, is a predominant pest of coconuts, date palms and other palm species, as well as a major pest of bananas (Musa spp.) in different parts of the world. Recently, RPM dispersed throughout the Caribbean islands and has reached both the North and South American continents. The RPM introductions have caused severe damage to palm species, and bananas and plantains in the Caribbean region. The work presented herein is the result of several acaricide trials conducted in Puerto Rico and Florida on palms and bananas in order to provide chemical control alternatives to minimize the impact of this pest. Spiromesifen, dicofol and acequinocyl were effective in reducing the population of R. indica in coconut in Puerto Rico. Spray treatments with etoxanole, abamectin, pyridaben, milbemectin and sulfur showed mite control in Florida. In addition, the acaricides acequinocyl and spiromesifen were able to reduce the population of R. indica in banana trials.