The baboon model (Papio hamadryas) of fetal loss: maternal weight,age, reproductive history and pregnancy outcome

Background Several risk factors are associated with the incidence of human stillbirths. The prevention of stillbirths in women is a pressing clinical problem. Methods We reviewed 402 pathology records of fetal loss occurring in a large baboon (Papio spp.) colony during a 15‐year period. Clinical histories of 565 female baboons with one or more fetal losses during a 20‐year period were analyzed for weight, age, and reproductive history. Results Fetal loss was most common at term (35.57%) and preterm (28.61%) and less common in the first half of gestation (11.20%) and post‐term (5.22%). Greater maternal weight, older age, history of stillbirth and higher parity were independent predictors for stillbirth. An exponential increase in the incidence of fetal loss was observed beginning at age 14 years in baboons. Conclusions Fetal loss and maternal risk factors associated with stillbirths in baboons were similar to those documented in women.     

Congenital anomalies in the baboon (Papio spp.)

Background A comprehensive survey of the prevalence of congenital anomalies in baboons has not been previously reported. We report the congenital anomalies observed over a 26‐year period in a large captive baboon colony. Methods A computer search was performed for all baboon congenital anomalies identified at necropsy and recorded on necropsy submissions. Results We identified 198 congenital anomalies in 166 baboons from 9972 necropsies (1.66% of total necropsies). The nervous, urogenital, musculoskeletal, and cardiovascular systems were most commonly affected. The most common organs affected were the brain, bone, heart, testicle, kidney, penis, aorta, and skeletal muscle. The most frequent congenital anomalies were blindness, seizures, and hydrocephalus. Conclusions The baboon has an overall frequency of congenital anomalies similar to humans and other non‐human primates. Although the most frequently affected systems are similar, congenital anomalies involving the digestive system appear to be less common in the baboon.     

A genetic linkage map of the baboon (Papio hamadryas) genome based on human microsatellite polymorphisms

A first-generation genetic linkage map of the baboon (Papio hamadryas) genome was developed for use in biomedical and evolutionary genetics. Pedigreed baboons (n = 694) were selected from the breeding colony maintained by the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research. To facilitate comparison with the human genome, the baboon linkage map consists primarily of human microsatellite loci amplified using published human PCR primers. Genotypes for 325 human microsatellites and 6 novel baboon microsatellites were used in linkage analyses performed with the MultiMap expert system. The resulting sex-averaged meiotic recombination map covers all 20 baboon autosomes, with average spacing among loci of 7.2 cM. Direct comparison among homologous (orthologous) loci reveals that, for 7 human autosomes, locus order is conserved between humans and baboons. For the other 15 autosomes, one or more rearrangements distinguish the two genomes. The total centimorgan distances among homologous markers are 28.0% longer in the human genome than in the baboon, suggesting that rates of recombination may be higher in humans. This baboon linkage map is the first reported for any nonhuman primate species and creates opportunities for mapping quantitative trait loci in baboons, as well as for comparative evolutionary analyses of genome structure.     

Spontaneous pancreatic islet amyloidosis in 40 baboons

Spontaneous amyloidosis occurs in many nonhuman primate species but remains difficult to diagnose and treat. Nonhuman primates continue to offer promise as animal models in which to study amyloidosis in humans. Amyloidosis was not diagnosed clinically but was found histologically in four male and 36 female baboons. The baboons averaged 18 years of age at death (range, 7-28 years). Clinical signs, if present, were hyperglycemia and cachexia. Blood glucose values were elevated in 12 of 30 baboons with available clinical pathology data. Four baboons had been clinically diagnosed as diabetic and three were treated with insulin. Amyloid was found in the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas in 40 baboons; 35 baboons had amyloid only in the islets of Langerhans. Amyloid was found in nonislet tissue of baboons as follows: five, nonislet pancreas; four, intestine and adrenal; three, kidney; two, prostate and spleen; and one each, lymph node, liver, gall bladder, stomach, tongue, urinary bladder, and salivary gland. Sections of paraffin-embedded tissues were evaluated for amyloid with hematoxylin and eosin (HE) and congo red (CR) staining, and using immunohistochemistry for human islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), glucagon, pancreatic polypeptide (PP), somatostatin (SS), and porcine insulin. Islet amyloid was positive with HE in 40 baboons, with CR in 39 baboons, and with IAPP and CGRP in 35 baboons. IAPP and CGRP only stained islet amyloid. PP, SS, glucagon, and porcine insulin did not stain amyloid. Islet amyloidosis in the baboon appears to be difficult to diagnose clinically, age-related, and similar to islet amyloidosis in other species. The baboon may be a good model for the study of islet amyloidosis in humans.     

Transmission dynamics of simian T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (STLV1) in a baboon breeding colony: predominance of female-to-female transmission

We investigated the prevalence, distribution, and transmission of simian T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (STLV1) in a baboon breeding colony over a 4-y period. We used polymerase chain reaction amplification of the proviral tax gene to assess the infection status of 272 animals housed in 4 separate corrals. Sequencing the proviral envelope gene from individual baboons detected several molecular subtypes (genotypes) of STLV1. At the start of the study, 31% (54 of 176) of all baboons were infected; the majority of infections (91%) were in mature females, with only 3 of 12 mature males and 2 of 48 infants and juveniles being infected. Over the next 4 years, 41 new infections were diagnosed. Of these, 83% occurred in sexually mature female baboons (at least 3 y of age), 17% in infants and juveniles (younger than 3 y), and 0% in mature males. The 7 infections in juveniles were probably derived from mother-to-infant transmission because mother-infant pairs consistently were infected with the same viral genotype. Of the 34 new infections in sexually mature female baboons, the genotyping data showed that 25 (73%) originated from other infected females as opposed to males. Male-to-female sexual transmission may have accounted for the remaining 9 new infections. There was no evidence of female-to-male sexual transmission. The high percentage of female-to-female transmission of STLV1 in our baboons was unexpected; we speculate that transmission may have occurred due to blood contamination from biting during aggressive behavior between females in establishing hierarchical dominance.     

Spontaneous disc degeneration in the baboon model: magnetic resonance imaging and histopathologic correlation

Degenerative disc disease is a major source of disability in humans. The baboon model is an excellent natural disease model to study comparable human disease, because baboons are relatively large (adult males 20-26 kg, adult females 12-17 kg), long-lived (30-45 years), well defined, easy to use, and closely related to humans. Published investigations with plain radiographs of disc degeneration in baboons indicated vertebral anatomy and changes that were remarkably similar to those seen in humans, and it would be valuable to determine if magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histopathologic evaluation would be useful methods for studying the model, as MRI allows multi-planar visualization of tissues without the use of intravenous contrast and it is superior for evaluating disc hydration, annulus tears, and herniations. The thoracolumbar junctions from 47 randomly selected baboons, ranging in age from 2 weeks to 34 years, were evaluated with MRI and histopathology. Excellent correlation with MRI was observed for changes in disc desiccation, height, and age (P < 0.001). The pathologic analysis demonstrated P values of < 0.001 when comparing histopathology with age and MRI results. All severely degenerated discs seen by MRI were in baboons 14 years of age or older.     

Antibiotic resistance and population structure in Escherichia coli from free-ranging African yellow baboons.

Two collections of Escherichia coli from human hosts and one from free-ranging African yellow baboons were examined for the ability to utilize various sugars (biotype) and for resistance to antibiotics. The frequency of antibiotic resistance in the E. coli flora of baboons that feed regularly in village garbage dumps was found to be no greater than that in baboons not associated with human habitation. The frequency of antibiotic resistance in E. coli isolated from baboons is similar to that in E. coli isolated from humans before the widespread use of antibiotics but significantly lower than that in recent isolates from humans. The biotype data indicate that the amount and distribution of genetic variation in the E. coli among free-ranging baboon troops are similar to those in isolates from humans. However, E. coli isolates from baboons are able to utilize a greater variety of sugars as their sole carbon source, possibly because of a greater variety of sugars in the baboon diet.     

Epidemiology and Characterization of Seizures in a Pedigreed Baboon Colony

This study evaluated the incidence, prevalence, and clinical features of seizures in a pedigreed captive colony of baboons. The association of seizures with subspecies, age, sex, and various clinical features was assessed. Records for 1527 captive, pedigreed baboons were reviewed, and 3389 events were identified in 1098 baboons. Of these events, 1537 (45%) represented witnessed seizures, whereas the remaining 1852 presented with craniofacial trauma or episodic changes in behavior that were suggestive, but not diagnostic, of seizure activity. Seizures were generalized myoclonic or tonic–clonic, with two thirds of the events witnessed in the morning. Seizure onset occurred in adolescence (age, 5 y), with an average of 3 seizures in a lifetime. The incidence and prevalence of seizures were 2.5% and 26%, respectively, whereas the prevalence of recurrent seizures (that is, epilepsy) was 15%. Seizures were more prevalent in male baboons, which tended to present with earlier onset and more seizures over a lifetime than did female baboons. Seizures were equally distributed between the subspecies; age of onset and seizure recurrences did not differ significantly between subspecies. Clinical features including age of onset, characteristics, and diurnal presentation of seizures in baboons suggested similarities to juvenile myoclonic epilepsy in humans. Facial trauma may be useful marker for epilepsy in baboons, but its specificity should be characterized.The Texas Biomedical Research Institute (Texas Biomed; San Antonio, TX) is home to the Southwest National Primate Research Center, which manages the world''s largest baboon colony, currently comprising about 2500 baboons. Almost 2000 baboons, stretching across 5 to 7 generations and consisting of primarily olive baboons (Papio hamadryas anubis, 64%), yellow baboons (P. h. cynocephalus, 4%), and their hybrids (29%), belong to a pedigreed colony that is widely used for genetic research.²³ Baboons are ideal for the development of genetic models of human disorders due to the many genetic, anatomic, biochemical, and physiologic features shared by humans and baboons.^20,21 Researchers at numerous institutions have used baboons as animal models for a broad range of diseases including diabetes, heart disease, osteoporosis, and chronic infectious illnesses.^12,21Baboons are a natural model of idiopathic generalized epilepsy.⁸ The occurrence of seizures among colony baboons has been noted since the inception of our colony at Texas Biomed more than 50 y ago.⁹ The seizures occur spontaneously or are triggered by ketamine (used for sedation) or other stressors, such as handling or fighting among baboons. Often the seizures are not witnessed, but the baboons are found lying prone on the ground, presumptively having fallen from an elevated structure. These baboons often undergo craniofacial trauma, including periorbital lacerations or bruising, injury to the muzzle or mouth, and broken teeth. Nonetheless, most of these baboons are otherwise healthy, without evidence of developmental delay or focal neurologic deficits. Some baboons with seizures have been reported to be congenitally blind or demonstrate congenital brain damage,⁴ whereas others exhibit seizures as a result of head trauma or infectious diseases. For the most part, however, the baboons with seizures have normal brain anatomy.^8,11,16,19The seizures reported in our baboon colony are typically convulsive, either described as brief generalized myoclonic seizures or tonic–clonic seizures,^17,18 similar to those described in red baboons (P. h. papio)⁸ and humans.³ Previous scalp electroencephalographic studies characterizing epilepsy in the baboon colony demonstrated a high prevalence of generalized interictal epileptic discharges.¹⁷ As is true for P. h. papio, epileptic baboons in our colony are photosensitive (that is, seizures in the animals can be triggered by visual stimuli such as intermittent light stimulation).^9,11,17,18Electroclinical findings suggest that baboons provide an ideal animal model for idiopathic generalized epilepsies in humans. However, little is known about the natural history of epilepsy in baboons. In the current study, we present clinical data regarding the incidence, prevalence, and characteristics of the seizures; their age of onset and tendency to recur; and the effects of epidemiologic factors, including age, sex, and subspecies, on their expression.     

Antithrombin III activity in baboons

The antithrombin III-heparin cofactor activity of 65 baboons and 130 healthy human subjects was measured. The results indicate that antithrombin III-heparin cofactor activity is significantly lower in baboons than in humans. The increased activity of the coagulation system of baboon is coupled with decreased antithrombin III-heparin cofactor activity. In humans each of these changes is associated with increased risk of thrombosis, but the baboon has a very low risk of developing thrombosis. Other factors probably balance the coagulation-coagulation inhibition systems in baboons.     

Differences between the normal vaginal bacterial community of baboons and that of humans

Humans and baboons (Papio spp.) share considerable anatomical and physiological similarities in their reproductive tracts. Given the similarities, it is reasonable to expect that the normal vaginal microbial composition (microbiota) of baboons would be similar to that of humans. We have used a 16S rRNA phylogenetic approach to assess the composition of the baboon vaginal microbiota in a set of nine animals from a captive facility and six from the wild. Results show that although Gram‐positive bacteria dominate in baboons as they do in humans, there are major differences between the vaginal microbiota of baboons and that of humans. In contrast to humans, the species of Gram‐positive bacteria (Firmicutes) were taxa other than Lactobacillus species. In addition, some groups of Gram‐negative bacteria that are not normally abundant in humans were found in the baboon samples. A further level of difference was also seen even within the same bacterial phylogenetic group, as baboon strains tended to be more phylogenetically distinct from human strains than human strains were with each other. Finally, results of our analysis suggests that co‐evolution of microbes and their hosts cannot account for the major differences between the microbiota of baboons and that of humans because divergences between the major bacterial genera were too ancient to have occurred since primates evolved. Instead, the primate vaginal tracts appear to have acquired discrete subsets of bacteria from the vast diversity of bacteria available in the environment and established a community responsive to and compatible with host species physiology. Am. J. Primatol. 73:119–126, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Etiological aspects of leukemias in primates including man

Attempts have been made to induce viral leukemia in monkeys (Papio hamadryas and Macaca arctoides) by inoculating them with blood from humans with different types of leukemias. In hamadryas baboons, the disease spread horizontally. By today 218 P. hamadryas and 5 M. arctoides monkeys had died of malignant lymphoma. The following viruses have been isolated from sick monkeys: lymphotropic baboon herpes virus (HVP), endogenous baboon C type viruses--xenotropic (BILN), and ecotropic (EVPG). C type oncovirus called "plasmic", which differs immunologically from the endogenous one, was also detected in the blood of sick animals. Altogether 165 sera from baboons, different species of macacas and chimpanzee were examined by the immunofluorescent technique for antibodies to HTLV virus isolated recently from sick humans with T cell leukemia/lymphoma. Antibodies to HTLV virus were detected only in monkeys (P. hamadryas and M. arctoides) with malignant lymphomas or in those which had been in close contact with them. Possible origin of simian HTLV-like virus is discussed. It originates either from leukemic patients or there is a family of primate HTLV like viruses related to the occurrence of leukemia.     

Natural Chagas disease in four baboons

Background  Chagas disease is common in Central and South America and the southern United States. The causative agent is Trypanosoma cruzi (order Kinetoplastida, family Trypanosomatidae), a kinetoplastid protozoan parasite of humans and other vertebrates. It is a serious public health issue and the leading cause of heart disease and cardiovascular death in Central and South America. In 1984, a colony baboon was discovered to be infected with T. cruzi .
Methods  As the initial diagnosis was made by microscopic observation of the amastigote forms of T. cruzi in myocardial fibers, T. cruzi amastigotes have been identified in three additional baboons.
Results  The primary findings were similar in all four baboons and were congestive heart failure with edema of dependent areas, hydrothorax, hydropericardium, and multifocal to diffuse lymphoplasmacytic myocarditis.
Conclusions  A baboon animal model of Chagas disease could contribute significantly to the development of therapies for the disease in humans.     

Increased virus replication and virulence after serial passage of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 in baboons

Similar to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection of humans, the natural history of HIV-2 infection in baboons (Papio cynocephalus) is a slow and chronic disease that generally takes several years before an AIDS-like condition develops. To shorten the amount of time to the development of disease, we performed five serial passages of HIV-2(UC2) in baboons by using blood and bone marrow samples during the acute phase of infection when viral loads were at high levels. After these serial passages, virus levels in plasma, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and lymphatic tissues in the acutely infected baboons were increased. Within 1 year of the HIV-2 infection, all of the inoculated baboons showed specific signs of AIDS-related disease progression within the lymphatic tissues, such as vascular proliferation and lymphoid depletion. The HIV-2(UC2) recovered after four serial passages showed increased kinetics of viral replication in baboon PBMC and cytopathicity. This study suggests that the HIV-2 isolate recovered after several serial passages in baboons will be useful in future studies of AIDS pathogenesis and vaccine development by using this animal model.     

X-linked,polymorphic genetic variation of thyroxin-binding globulin (TBG) in baboons and screening of additional primates

X-linked polymorphic variation of thyroxin-binding globulin (TBG) is observed in several human groups. Isoelectric focusing of plasma samples labeled in vitro with [¹²⁵I]thyroxin, followed by autoradiography, also reveals genetically determined polymorphic electrophoretic variation in baboon TBG. The protein detected by this method in baboon plasma is immunologically similar to human TBG and is distinct from the other thyroxin-binding proteins, albumin and prealbumin. The isoelectric patterns of human and baboon TBG are very similar and both have an isoelectric range of pH 4.1 to 4.5. The baboon TBG polymorphism is inherited in a two-allele X-linked fashion, with a frequency of 72% for the common allele and 28% for the slow allele. A survey of seven other primate species including African green monkey, bonnet macaque, chimpanzee, crab-eating macaque, gorilla, rhesus monkey, and spider monkey revealed no polymorphic variation in TBG, although isoelectric patterns were similar to the human and baboon patterns. In addition, samples from pregnant chimpanzees demonstrate a pronounced quantitative anodal shift in relative band densities, a shift also observed in pregnant humans. This shift was not observed in samples from pregnant baboons. TBG should prove to be a useful X-linked genetic marker in baboons and provides a model of serum protein changes in pregnancy, at least in humans and chimpanzees.This research was supported by NIH Grant 2R01-EY-02388 and a Biomedical Research Support Grant from the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston.     

Crossing the Red Sea: phylogeography of the hamadryas baboon, Papio hamadryas hamadryas

The hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas hamadryas) is found both in East Africa and western Arabia and is the only free-ranging nonhuman primate in Arabia. It has been hypothesized that hamadryas baboons colonized Arabia in the recent past and were possibly even transported there by humans. We investigated the phylogeography of hamadryas baboons by sequencing a portion of the control region of mtDNA in 107 baboons from four Saudi Arabian populations and combing these data with published data from Eritrean (African) P. h. hamadryas. Analysis grouped sequences into three distinct clades, with clade 1 found only in Arabia, clade 3 found only in Africa, but clade 2 found in both Arabian and African P. h. hamadryas and also in the olive baboon, P. h. anubis. Patterns of variation within Arabia are neither compatible with the recent colonization of Arabia, implying that baboons were not transported there by humans, nor with a northerly route of colonization of Arabia. We propose that hamadryas baboons reached Arabia via land bridges that have formed periodically during glacial maxima at the straits of Bab el Mandab in the southern Red Sea. We suggest that the genetic differentiation of Arabian from African populations suggests that Arabian populations have a higher conservation status than recognized previously.     

Interspecies transmission of macaque simian T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1 in baboons resulted in an outbreak of malignant lymphoma.

An outbreak of malignant lymphoma has been observed in one of the baboon (Papio hamadryas) stocks of Sukhumi Primate Center. More than 300 cases in this "high-lymphoma stock" have been registered since 1967. Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-related virus was implicated as the etiologic agent of Sukhumi baboon lymphoma. The origin of this virus remained unclear. Two possibilities were originally considered: the origin could be baboon simian T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1 (STLV-1) or HTLV-1 (before the outbreak started, some Sukhumi baboons were inoculated with human leukemic material). The third possibility entered recently: interspecies transmission of rhesus macaque STLV-1 to baboons. It was prompted by the finding of very close similarity between STLV-1 991-1cc (the strain isolated from a non-Sukhumi baboon inoculated with material from a Sukhumi lymphomatous baboon) and rhesus STLV-1. To test this hypothesis, we investigated 37 Sukhumi STLV-1 isolates from baboons of high-lymphoma stock by PCR discriminating rhesus type and baboon type STLV-1 isolates. All of them were proved to be rhesus type STLV-1. In contrast, all six STLV-1 isolates from baboons belonging to other stocks or populations were of baboon type. The PCR results were fully confirmed by DNA sequence data. The partial env gene gene sequences of all four STLV-1 isolates from Sukhumi lymphomatous baboons were 97 to 100% similar to the sequence of known rhesus STLV-1 and only 85% homologous with the sequence of conventional baboon STLV-1. Thus, interspecies transmission of STLV-1 from rhesus macaques (or closely related species) to baboons occurred at Sukhumi Primate Center. Most probably this event initiated the outbreak of lymphoma in Sukhumi baboons.     

Prevalence and laparoscopic appearance of spontaneous endometriosis in the baboon (Papio anubis, Papio cynocephalus).

The prevalence of spontaneous endometriosis was investigated by laparoscopy in 52 baboons (Papio anubis and Papio cynocephalus) of proven fertility. Clinical endometriosis was diagnosed in 9 (17%) and 4 (8%) baboons with or without a previous hysterotomy, respectively. Endometriosis was confirmed by histology in 75% of these animals. The 37 endometriotic lesions were classified as typical (13%), subtle (57%), or suspicious (30%); and the percentage of histological confirmation was 100%, 61%, and 50%, respectively. Lesions were found on the uterosacral ligaments and in Douglas' pouch (46%), on the uterine peritoneum and the uterovesical fold (38%), and on uterine-omental adhesions (11%). Only 5% of the lesions were localized on the ovarian ligament, whereas ovarian endometriosis was not found. This study for the first time demonstrates that spontaneous endometriosis occurs in healthy baboons with proven fertility. It also shows that the laparoscopic appearances, the histological aspect, and the localization of the pelvic lesions are comparable to those found in women. We therefore conclude that the baboon is a good animal model for the study of endometriosis.     

A survey of gastrointestinal parasites of olive baboons (Papio anubis) in human settlement areas of Mole National Park, Ghana

Fecal samples from 55 free-ranging olive baboons (Papio anubis) in Mole National Park, Ghana, were collected 22 June-7 July 2008 and analyzed for gastrointestinal parasites. This is the first survey of baboon gastrointestinal parasites in Ghana and provides baseline data for this area. Ninety-three percent of samples were infected, leaving 7% with no parasites observed. Of those infected, there was a 76% prevalence of strongyles, 53% Strongyloides spp., 11% Abbreviata caucasica , 62% prevalence of Balantidium coli (trophozoites and cysts identified), 4% Entomeba hystolytica/dispar, and 47% unidentified protozoan parasites. Of the strongyle infections, 9% were identified as Oesophagostamum sp. One sample contained an unidentified spirurid nematode that resembled Gongylonema sp. Mole has a mixed forest-savanna habitat, and baboons frequently range into human areas, which makes them subject to parasites from each habitat and multiple sources of exposure. We found a high prevalence of nematode parasites, consistent with a wet or cooler forest environment, or high rates of fecal contamination. The presence of Strongyloides sp., E. hystolitica/dispar, and B. coli suggest potential public health risk from baboons, but molecular identification of these parasites, and documentation of their presence in local human populations, would be necessary to confirm zoonotic transmission.     

Binding of the gestagens norethisterone and levonorgestrel in blood of various species

This study investigates the binding of 2 widely used contraceptive steroids, levonorgestrel and norethisterone, by plasma from various animal species and compares the results to those obtained with human plasma. Equilibrium dialysis of plasma samples and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis were performed as previously described. The plasma samples were diluted with phosphate-buffered saline on the percentage of levonorgestrel and norethisterone bound in comparison to human plasma. The concentration of total protein and albumin was measured colorimetrically in each sample. An ammonium sulphate precipitation technique measured the level of sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG). Results of the equilibrium dialysis show that binding of levonorgestrel and norethisterone in plasma was similar in adult female rhesus monkeys and baboons to that of humans with both high-affinity and low-affinity classes of binding sites. The dissociation constants of the high-affinity class for levonorgestrel was 4-fold lower than that for norethisterone in all 3 primates, indicating levonorgestrel was more tightly bound. Total protein and albumin concentrations were also the same in all 3 primates. SHBG levels in female monkeys and baboons however were 3-4 times those found in normal human females. Although differences exist in the binding of the 2 gestagens between human, baboon, and rhesus monkey plasma, there are no significant differences in the metabolism of the gestagens in the 3 primates. Overall, the results indicate that in the human, baboon, and rhesus monkey, binding of norgestrel and norethisterone occur mainly to SHBG, which had a greater affinity for norgestrel than for norethisterone, and to a lesser extent, albumin. Differences in the binding of gestagens between human and nonprimate species (rat, dog, rabbit) studied suggest that only baboon and rhesus monkeys may be considered appropriate animal models for extrapolation of results of contraceptive studies to humans.     

Human–hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) conflict in the Wonchit Valley,South Wollo,Ethiopia

Understanding the extent of human–primate conflict is crucial to the development of conservation and management strategies. We carried out this study in an unprotected area of central Ethiopia to examine the magnitude of human–hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) conflict and to assess the attitude of local farmers towards baboons in Wonchit Valley. In 2014, we interviewed 119 adult respondents using a structured questionnaire. Local farmers considered hamadryas baboons to be the major pest in the area. All respondents reported that hamadryas baboons caused crop raiding and small livestock predation in the region. Respondents reported that a shortage of fruit producing wild trees and ready availability of crops were the main causes of conflict between farmers and hamadryas baboons. We found that hamadryas baboons damaged cereal crops at dusk and dawn during full moonlight, and most (89.9%) respondents claimed that they were not interested in hamadryas baboon conservation. Our results indicate that human–hamadryas baboon conflict has a strongly negative impact on both baboon conservation and local farmers. We suggest that to mitigate the human–hamadryas baboon conflict, job opportunities such as beekeeping should be introduced in the region.