LIKING OF POPCORN CONTAINING DIFFERENT LEVELS OF SALT1

Approximately 300 subjects participated in a test to determine whether the level of salt in popcorn affected the change in overall liking observed as a consequence of consuming a serving of popcorn. Subjects tasted and rated three samples of popcorn (low, medium, high salt levels), ate a serving of popcorn at one of the salt levels and then tasted and rated the three samples again. Subjects returned one or seven days later and tasted and rated the samples again. Overall liking, salt intensity and salt liking were measured. The subjects also completed a questionnaire about their liking and consumption of popcorn. Liking scores for the popcorns decreased after eating a 3-cup serving; however, sensory specific satiety for the different levels of salt was not observed. Consuming low salt popcorn increased the rated saltiness of the popcorns, whereas consuming high salt popcorn decreased the rated saltiness — probably a frequency effect. When subjects retasted the popcorns one or seven days later, all liking ratings increased except the salt liking ratings for the high salt sample. There was also a trend for the overall liking of this high salt sample to increase less than for the medium and low salt samples. Questionnaire measures of liking or consumption were not related to the changes in liking observed.     

Untrained consumer assessment of the eating quality of European beef: 2. Demographic factors have only minor effects on consumer scores and willingness to pay

The beef industry must become more responsive to the changing market place and consumer demands. An essential part of this is quantifying a consumer’s perception of the eating quality of beef and their willingness to pay for that quality, across a broad range of demographics. Over 19 000 consumers from Northern Ireland, Poland, Ireland and France each tasted seven beef samples and scored them for tenderness, juiciness, flavour liking and overall liking. These scores were weighted and combined to create a fifth score, termed the Meat Quality 4 score (MQ4) (0.3×tenderness, 0.1×juiciness, 0.3×flavour liking and 0.3×overall liking). They also allocated the beef samples into one of four quality grades that best described the sample; unsatisfactory, good-every-day, better-than-every-day or premium. After the completion of the tasting panel, consumers were then asked to detail, in their own currency, their willingness to pay for these four categories which was subsequently converted to a proportion relative to the good-every-day category (P-WTP). Consumers also answered a short demographic questionnaire. The four sensory scores, the MQ4 score and the P-WTP were analysed separately, as dependant variables in linear mixed effects models. The answers from the demographic questionnaire were included in the model as fixed effects. Overall, there were only small differences in consumer scores and P-WTP between demographic groups. Consumers who preferred their beef cooked medium or well-done scored beef higher, except in Poland, where the opposite trend was found. This may be because Polish consumers were more likely to prefer their beef cooked well-done, but samples were cooked medium for this group. There was a small positive relationship with the importance of beef in the diet, increasing sensory scores by about 4% in Poland and Northern Ireland. Men also scored beef about 2% higher than women for most sensory scores in most countries. In most countries, consumers were willing to pay between 150 and 200% more for premium beef, and there was a 50% penalty in value for unsatisfactory beef. After quality grade, by far the greatest influence on P-WTP was country of origin. Consumer age also had a small negative relationship with P-WTP. The results indicate that a single quality score could reliably describe the eating quality experienced by all consumers. In addition, if reliable quality information is delivered to consumers they will pay more for better quality beef, which would add value to the beef industry and encourage improvements in quality.     

Providing information about a flavor to preschoolers: effects on liking and memory for having tasted it

This study sought to determine if providing affectively positive information about a flavor to preschool-aged children during tasting will increase recognition of and liking for the flavor and if the recognition and liking are associated. Forty-six 3- to 6-year-old children tasted 10 flavors: 5 presented with affectively positive information and 5 without. The 10 flavors were then presented again interspersed with 10 distracter flavors. Children reported whether they had tasted the flavor previously and provided hedonic ratings for each flavor. Children's ability to remember having tasted a flavor was greater when the flavor was presented with affectively positive information than without in children throughout the age range of 3-6 years. In children younger than 4.5 years, the provision of information had no effect on hedonic rating, whereas in older children, the provision of information was associated with greater hedonic ratings. We conclude that providing affectively positive information to children about a flavor can increase their ability to recognize the flavor as previously tasted and increases hedonic rating of the flavor in children older than 4.5 years.     

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONSUMER PREFERENCES AND TRAINED PANEL RESPONSES

Eight samples of dried tomato soups were profiled by a trained panel, who also provided ratings of overall liking and liking for particular attributes on relative-to-ideal rating scales. A consumer panel tested a subset of four of the soups in home trials, assessing them for overall liking and for particular attributes on either hedonic or relative-to-ideal rating scales. The pattern of overall preferences differed between the trained and untrained panelists, demonstrating the inappropriateness of using trained panelists to provide measures of preference or acceptance. The conclusions regarding consumer preferences would differ depending on which rating scale was used; these differences disappeared when the relative-to-ideal ratings were converted into values of the same form as the hedonic ratings. The overall liking was best predicted by flavor rather than color or thickness. A principal components analysis (PCA) of the profile data compared well with a plot based on the trained panel preference data using MDPREF. The preference data were also fitted to the PCA dimensions using the PREMAP vector model, which gave a good fit for only six of the 15 trained panelists; the PREMAP ideal point model failed to show a better fit. In order to test these models adequately more than eight samples would need to be tested.     

COMPARISON OF ATTRIBUTE LIKING AND JAR SCALES TO EVALUATE THE ADEQUACY OF SENSORY ATTRIBUTES OF MILK DESSERTS

Just-about-right (JAR) scales and attribute liking questions are usually used to study consumer perception of the sensory characteristics of food products. The aim of the present work was to compare the performance of attribute liking and JAR scales to evaluate consumers' perceived adequacy of flavor and texture of milk puddings. Two groups of consumers were asked to evaluate eight milk desserts using (1) overall liking followed by attribute liking for texture and flavor and (2) overall liking followed by JAR scales for thickness, creaminess, sweetness and vanilla flavor. Overall liking scores were significantly different when JAR scales or attribute liking questions were considered. Texture, flavor and overall liking scores were highly correlated to each other, providing the same information. JAR scales correlated better with the intensity of sensory attributes evaluated by a trained sensory panel, being JAR percentages a reliable tool to study the adequacy of sensory attributes.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Results from the present work showed that consumers might not be able to independently evaluate their liking of different sensory attributes of a product. For this reason, the use of attribute liking questions for studying the adequacy of sensory attributes in complex products would not be recommended. JAR scales were better indicators of the adequacy of sensory attributes. Consumers were able to independently evaluate texture and flavor attributes using JAR scales. However, the influence of JAR scales on overall liking scores should be taken into account when including these scales on consumer studies.     

IMPACT OF DIFFERENCES IN TASTE TEST RATINGS ON THE CONSUMPTION OF MILK IN BOTH A LABORATORY AND A FOODSERVICE SETTING1

The objective of this study was to observe the impact of a perceptible difference in the liking of milk on consumption of the milk in both laboratory and cafeteria settings. We produced milk with no flavor defects and milk with a light oxidized flavor. The defect-free milk scored about 1 point higher than the off-flavored milk on a 9-point hedonic scale. We placed the same two milk products in the milk dispenser in a dormitory cafeteria for a total of 32 dinner meals and measured the amount of milk consumed. A subset of subjects from the cafeteria population also consumed the milks in a laboratory consumption test. In a second laboratory consumption test a different group of subjects consumed the two milks. The liking difference had no impact on consumption in the dormitory food service setting and either no impact or a small impact on consumption in a laboratory setting.     

MONITORING SCALING DRIFT FOR HEDONIC CATEGORY SCALES

Judges on anti-nausea medication, used hedonic scales to assess a set of foods and beverages on two occasions, initially on beginning a treatment with anti-nausea medication and then four weeks later. To detect the possibility that changes in hedonic scores for the foods and beverages may be caused not by changes in liking but by 'scaling drift': changes in the use of the scale, control stimuli were also assessed. These control stimuli were sets of stimuli to be assessed for intensity and a set to be assessed for liking. These latter stimuli were a class of stimuli that were unlikely to be liked to a different extent on the two testing occasions. The lack of change in the control stimuli and the change in the hedonic scores for the foods and beverages suggested that the latter was due to changes in liking for the foods and beverages rather than 'scaling drift'.     

Taste discrimination vs hedonic response to sucrose in coffee beverage. An interlaboratory study

Degree of liking, using a 17-point hedonic scale, and discriminationtaste thresholds, using a paired-comparison technique, weredetermined in a coffee beverage containing 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5,and 10.0% sucrose at laboratories in Brazil, Japan, Poland,Sweden and USA. Hedonic responses from the 122 subjects weresubdivided into four distinct sub-groups, according to differentpatterns as a function of sucrose concentration. Different frequenciesof these hedonic patterns resulted from the five laboratories.With few exceptions, repeated hedonic testing at the terminationof the experiment matched those from the beginning, indicatingstability of response during the lengthy study. No differenceswere observed in hedonic responses (nor in discrimination ability)between the male and female subjects at each laboratory. Discrimination thresholds at the five standard sucrose concentrations,and corresponding Weber ratios, were reported for the pooleddata within each laboratory. In general, the Weber ratios werehigher at the lower concentrations, indicating dependence ofdiscrimination upon the standard concentration. Notable differencesin discrimination ability were evident among the five laboratories,but were unrelated to degree of liking for sweetness in thecoffee. Subjects with low or with high degree of liking forall coffee samples, as well as those with increasing or decreasinghedonic responses as a function of sucrose concentration, discriminatedequally well among the concentration levels. The data from alllaboratories showed that ability to discriminate among sucroselevels and degree of liking for sucrose levels in coffee areindependent behavioral responses. ¹Present address: Department of Nutrition, Cornell University,Ithaca, New York, USA     

EVALUATION OF WINE QUALITY USING A SMALL-PANEL HEDONIC SCALING METHOD

A hedonic scoring method for evaluating wines with a small panel was examined for reliability, effects of training level and agreement with a traditional 20-point scoring technique. The method was found to differentiate among qualities of 14 domestic Sauvignon Blanc wines with good reliability. Four panels were tested, three with a high degree of experience in wine judging and a fourth consisting of fine wine consumers with no special training. The three experienced panels agreed well about the wines' quality scores. Mean panel scores were less highly correlated (although still positive) with the untrained panel, which showed higher variability and lower reliability. Mean scores from the hedonic method were correlated at r =+0.94 with mean scores from a 20-point quality judging procedure. The small panel hedonic method is suitable for generating quality scores for consumer guidance in large scale wine surveys, as are commonly found in popular wine periodicals.     

INCORPORATING TASTING INTO A CONJOINT ANALYSIS OF TASTE,HEALTH CLAIM,PRICE AND BRAND FOR PURCHASING STRAWBERRY YOGURT1

The objective of this research was to examine some considerations arising from incorporating tasting into a conjoint analysis procedure studying the effects of taste, brand, price and health claim on the buying intent for strawberry yogurt. Specifically, the considerations were: (1) whether people could remember the sensory qualities of the products tasted well enough to re-identify them in a follow-up test, and (2) whether their memory of their liking for the products was stable. Two hundred people who purchased and ate strawberry yogurt participated in a three-part test session. Part 1) They tasted and rated their liking for three yogurt samples and either did or did not take notes on the sensory attributes of the yogurts. Part 2) They rated 27 mock yogurt labels representing 3 brands x 3 taste qualities x 3 prices x 3 health claims on a buying intent scale. Part 3) They rated their liking of the three yogurt samples either from memory or by retasting and they attempted to re-identify the three yogurt samples. Taking notes improved the proportion of completely correct re-identifications (75% vs 50%). Liking reratings from memory were as stable as liking reratings by retasting. Taste and health claim had the largest influence on buying intent; brand had little influence on buying intent.     

A LABELED AFFECTIVE MAGNITUDE (LAM) SCALE FOR ASSESSING FOOD LIKING/DISLIKING1

The most widely used scale for assessing food liking or disliking is the 9‐pt hedonic scale. Unfortunately, this affective scale suffers from problems related to unequal scale intervals and the underuse of end categories, which results in a reduced ability to differentiate among extremely well liked or extremely disliked foods. Magnitude estimation avoids these problems while enabling ratio statements to be made about the data. However, it does not provide absolute ratings of liking/disliking and can be difficult for some consumers to use. We report here on the development of a labeled affective magnitude scale (LAM) scale that has advantages over both the 9‐pt hedonic scale and magnitude estimation. Forty‐four semantic labels were scaled for their affective meaning by subjects using modulus‐free magnitude estimation. The geometric mean magnitude estimates obtained for each semantic label were used to construct a series of labeled affective magnitude scales by spacing the labels along a visual analogue scale according to their obtained semantic values. Reliability and sensitivity studies were conducted to assess the effects of alternative semantic and numeric labels. The results of these studies led to the choice of a scale format that uses verbal labels that are consistent with the 9‐pt hedonic scale. The labeled affective magnitude (LAM) scale was compared to the hedonic scale and magnitude estimation in several food preference and acceptability tests. The LAM was shown to have equal reliability and sensitivity to the hedonic scale, provided somewhat greater discrimination among highly liked foods, and resulted in data that were similar to magnitude estimation in terms of the obtained ratios among rated stimuli. The LAM scale was also judged by consumers to be as easy to use as the 9‐pt hedonic scale and significantly less difficult than magnitude estimation.     

Development of a picture‐scale‐questionnaire to assess liking for fatty,salty, sweet,and umami seasonings compared to a sensory evaluation for Japanese consumers

PrefQuest is a web‐based questionnaire that measures the liking for sweet, fatty‐sweet, salty, and fatty‐salty sensations using combinations of images of French food items. We adapted the original PrefQuest questionnaire for Japanese respondents (J‐PrefQuest). J‐PrefQuest comprises 17 Japanese food items categorized into four sensations: fatty, salty, sweet, and umami. Participants responded by indicating their preferred level of seasoning for each food item on a 6‐point scale. Segmentation of 161 respondents identified groups who preferred: (a) high amount of umami seasonings; (b) low amount of umami seasonings; (c) high amount of fatty and low amount of salty seasonings. To validate the questionnaire, 70 female university students were recruited for a sensory evaluation of five levels of seasoning used for six food items on a 9‐point hedonic scale before completing the questionnaire. The validity of J‐PrefQuest questionnaire was then analyzed by comparing the two results.

Practical applications

Measuring personal preference or “liking” for the taste of food items is important as such information may contribute to the prevention of various diseases and improve the quality of life of consumers. We developed a simple questionnaire with pictures to evaluate the liking for fatty, salty, sweet, and umami sensations of Japanese respondents. This questionnaire focuses on typical seasonings added to different Japanese food items and provides objective information about liking different food sensations. Thus, it has application as an important screening tool to identify respondents who may need to make their food consumption behavior more healthy. Moreover, following minor modifications, this questionnaire could also be used in other Asian countries where plain white rice is the stable food.     

STRUCTURED AND UNSTRUCTURED 9-POINT HEDONIC SCALES: A CROSS CULTURAL STUDY WITH AMERICAN, JAPANESE AND KOREAN CONSUMERS

The range of scores elicited by a structured, an unstructured and a 'labels-only'version of the 9-point hedonic scale were compared using consumers from USA, Japan and Korea. It was found that the unstructured scale elicited a wider range of scores for American and Japanese consumers. After correction for hedonic ranges, it was found that Japanese had smaller ranges of scores on all three scales, although the effect was less pronounced for the unstructured scale. The Korean consumers were the exception. Their ranges were less than Americans but their ranges on the unstructured scale did not increase. The results were discussed in terms of the effects of inhibition of use of categories by the scale labels, effects of translation from the English, psychophysical style and order effects.     

EFFECTIVENESS OF CATEGORY AND LINE SCALES TO CHARACTERIZE CONSUMER PERCEPTION OF FRUITY FERMENTED FLAVOR IN PEANUTS

Fruity fermented (FF) flavor is a common off‐flavor in peanuts resulting from high‐temperature curing. The 9‐point hedonic scale is the most widely used scale to determine consumer acceptance; however, research has indicated that line scales may provide equal reliability and greater sensitivity. The objectives of this study were to characterize consumer perception of FF flavor in peanuts and to compare the effectiveness of the two scale types. Consumers (n = 208) evaluated control (no FF), low‐intensity (1.0) FF and high‐intensity (3.0) FF peanut pastes for the strength/intensity of roasted peanut flavor (RPF), sweet taste (ST), fresh peanut flavor (FPF) and overall liking (OV) using randomly assigned ballots. Sensitivity in defining consumer perception of off‐flavor in peanuts was greater with use of line scales than with the hedonic scale. The line scale indicated that FF flavor in peanuts, even at low intensity, negatively impacted OV and further identified significantly lower RPF and FPF perception by consumers. The hedonic scale identified only a difference in FPF and was not sensitive enough to show a difference in OV.     

PATIENT PREFERENCE AND SENSORY COMPARISONS OF NASAL SPRAY ALLERGY MEDICATIONS

In a double-blind crossover study, 94 symptomatic adult patients with allergic rhinitis rated sensory preferences for single exposures (2 sprays in each nostril) to three intranasal corticosteroids: triamcinolone acetonide AQ, beclomethasone dipropionate AQ, and fluticasone propionate. Each patient was given the medication and then immediately asked to use a 100-point scale to rate 13 attributes: comfort to take the medicine, medicine run-off, irritation, strength of urge to sneeze, strength of odor, liking odor, strength of taste, strength of bitter taste, liking taste, and moistness of nose and throat, and then (at least 2 min after administration) irritation, medicine run-off, and overall liking. The order of drug presentation was randomized across patients and a 30-min rest interval occurred between drug administrations. Triamcinolone was lower in odor strength than both beclomethasone and fluticasone (mean scores of 8 vs 57 and 52, respectively; P<0.001) and the odor of triamcinolone was preferred to the odor of the two other sprays (mean score of 72 vs 55 and 55, respectively; P<0.001). While the taste intensity ratings of the three sprays were not significantly different, the triamcinolone taste was liked more than that of fluticasone (mean scores of 55 vs 41, P<0.04). Overall, triamcinolone was liked more than fluticasone (P<0.05). In summary, patient preference testing has shown that triamcinolone is preferred over beclomethasone and/or fluticasone in terms of odor and taste. Such preferences may be important in treatment compliance and outcomes.     

ESTIMATES OF CARRY-OVER EFFECTS IN TWO-PRODUCT HOME USAGE CONSUMER TESTS

In-house use consumer test data from four studies dealing with three pairs of household products and a pair of antiperspirant products were examined for significant carry-over (product usage order) effects, which would confound the analysis of treatment (product) effects. In each study, two products were compared using a two-period crossover design. One hundred twenty panelists participated in each study. A forced choice preference scale or a 9-point hedonic scale was used to obtain responses from various sensory attributes. In all studies, the estimates of carry-over effects were not significant at the 5% level. Transformation of hedonic scale data into preference dichotomy also gave estimates of carry-over effects which were not significant at the 5% level, but led to a loss of test sensitivity for detecting treatment differences. The authors recommend that all comparative crossover design studies in sensory evaluation be monitored for carry-over effects and that statistically determined sample size should be used to reduce the possibility of obtaining significant carry-over effects.     

A RESEARCH NOTE: USE OF A SIGNAL DETECTION RANKING ANALYSIS TO MEASURE PREFERENCE FOR COMMERCIAL AND 'HEALTH MODIFIED' CAKES

Consumer preference for a common 'yellow cake' prepared from a commercially available cake mix and for three 'health modified'cakes was measured using signal detection ranking procedures. Consumers found the ranking protocol simple to use, making it a viable alternative to hedonic scaling. Measures of likelihood to choose to eat, after provision of nutritional information about the cakes, showed the same trend as measures of preference taken before. Yet, the dominance of preference for yellow cake over the 'health modified' cakes was reduced.     

EFFECT OF PRICE ON PLEASANTNESS RATINGS AND USE INTENTIONS FOR A CHOCOLATE BAR IN THE PRESENCE AND ABSENCE OF A HEALTH CLAIM

The effect of price information on hedonic and use intention responses to a chocolate bar was investigated in the absence and presence of a health claim related to energy, satiety value and cholesterol content. First, Finnish students (n = 79) tasted and rated blind three chocolate bars (one regular, two containing functional ingredients). Second, one group (“Informed,” n = 40) evaluated the samples with the health claim and price information, the other group (“Control,” n = 39) as a regular bar with price information only. A separate focus group (n = 6) interview was conducted to obtain further views of the claim and samples. Neither the health claim nor the price affected pleasantness ratings, while the increasing price significantly reduced the likelihood of buying and preferred frequency of eating the chocolate bar in both groups. Price affected the likelihood of buying more strongly among females than among males, and involvement with chocolate bars affected the likelihood of buying in the control, but not in the informed group. The focus group interview indicated that healthfulness might be irrelevant for chocolate products. Overall, price heavily affected the likelihood of buying the target product, but price and the health claim were incapable of altering hedonic responses to it.     

PROP (6-n-Propylthiouracil) tasting and sensory responses to caffeine,sucrose, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone and chocolate

The genetically determined ability to taste 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) has been linked with lowered acceptance of some bitter foods. Fifty-four women, aged 18-30 years, tasted and rated PROP-impregnated filter paper and seven solutions of PROP. Summed bitterness intensity ratings for PROP solutions determined PROP taster status. Respondents also tasted five sucrose and seven caffeine solutions, as well as seven solutions each of caffeine and PROP that had been sweetened with 0.3 mmol/l neohesperidin dihydrochalcone (NHDC). Respondents also rated three kinds of chocolate using 9-point category scales. PROP tasters rated caffeine solutions as more bitter than did non-tasters and liked them less. PROP tasters did not rate either sucrose or NHDC as more sweet. The addition of NHDC to PROP and caffeine solutions suppressed bitterness intensity more effectively for tasters than for non-tasters and improved hedonic ratings among both groups. PROP tasters and non-tasters showed the same hedonic response to sweetened caffeine solutions and did not differ in their sensory responses to chocolate. Genetic taste markers may have only a minor impact on the consumption of such foods as sweetened coffee or chocolate.