The membrane ATPase of alkalophilic Bacillus firmus RAB is an F1-type ATPase

At the optimal pH for growth (pH 10.5), alkalophilic Bacillus firmus RAB, an obligate aerobe, exhibits normal rates of oxidative phosphorylation despite the low transmembrane proton electrochemical gradient, about -60 mV (delta psi = -180 mV and delta pH = +120 mV). This bioenergetic problem might be resolved by use of an Na+ coupled ATP synthase; otherwise an F1F0-ATPase must be able to utilize low driving forces in this organism. The ATPase activity was extracted from everted membrane vesicles by low ionic strength treatment and purified to homogeneity by hydrophobic interaction chromatography and sucrose density gradient centrifugation. The ATPase preparation had the characteristic F1-ATPase subunit structure, with Mr values of 51,500 (alpha), 48,900 (beta), 34,400 (gamma), 23,300 (delta), and 14,500 (epsilon); the identity of the alpha and beta subunits was confirmed by immunoblotting with anti-beta of Escherichia coli and anti-B. firmus RAB F1. Methanol and octyl glucoside, agents that stimulated the low basal membrane ATPase activity 10- to 12-fold, dramatically elevated the MgATPase activity of the purified F1, more than 150-fold, to 50 mumol min-1 mg protein-1. Anti-F1 inhibited membrane ATPase activity greater than or equal to 80%. The membranes exhibited no Na+-stimulated or vanadate-sensitive ATPase activity when prepared in the absence or presence of Na+ or ATP. These findings, which are consistent with previous studies, establish that in alkalophilic bacteria, ATP hydrolysis, and presumably ATP synthesis is catalyzed by an F1F0-ATPase rather than a Na+ ATPase.     

Purification and reconstitution of the F1F0-ATP synthase from alkaliphilic Bacillus firmus OF4. Evidence that the enzyme translocates H+ but not Na+

The F1F0-ATP synthase from the alkaliphilic Bacillus firmus OF4 was purified in a reconstitutively active form, in good yield and with a high specific ATPase activity when appropriately activated. The purification procedure involved octyl glucoside extraction of washed membrane vesicles in the presence of 20% glycerol and asolectin followed by ammonium sulfate fractionation and sucrose density gradient centrifugation. The purified preparation was resolved into seven bands by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, corresponding to the five F1 subunits, alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon, and to the b and c subunits of the F0. Two-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate-poly-acrylamide gel analysis revealed a candidate for the alpha subunit of F0. The MgATPase activity of B. firmus OF4 F1F0 was barely detectable but could be stimulated, optimally more than 100-fold, by sulfite, methanol, and octyl thioglucoside. The enzyme was inhibited by N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide and sodium azide, but not by aurovertin, an inhibitor of the F1 from Escherichia coli. The F1F0 reconstituted into proteoliposomes catalyzed ATPase activity, ATP-Pi exchange, and ATP-dependent delta pH and delta psi formation. ATP hydrolysis was stimulated by protonophores while the other activities were abolished by protonophores. These activities were neither dependent on added sodium ions nor significantly affected by them. F1F0 proteoliposomes made from crude octyl glucoside extracts that also contained the Na+/H+ antiporter were shown to catalyze ATP-dependent Na+ uptake that was completely sensitive to carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl-hydrazone; Na+ uptake activity was absent in proteoliposomes containing more purified F1F0 but lacking the Na+/H+ antiporter. These data show that the F1F0 translocates protons and does not substitute Na+ for H+ in energy coupling.     

Novel streptococcal mutants defective in the regulation of H+-ATPase biosynthesis and in F0 complex

In Streptococcus faecalis (faecium), the cytoplasmic pH is regulated by proton extrusion via a proton translocating F1F0-ATPase; the level of this enzyme increases in response to cytoplasmic acidification (Kobayashi, H., Suzuki, T., and Unemoto, T. (1986) J. Biol. Chem. 261, 627-630). We describe here two novel acid-sensitive mutants, designated AS8 and AS17, that contain ATPase activity but fail to grow on acid media. Our data suggested that in mutant AS17, acidification of the cytoplasm stimulates synthesis of the F0 sector of the ATPase but not the F1 sector. The accumulation in the plasma membrane of F0 sectors devoid of F1 results in enhanced proton permeability, and as a consequence mutant AS17 is unable to regulate the cytoplasmic pH in acid media. The genetic defect may reside in a gene that regulates expression of the F1F0-ATPase. Mutant AS8 does not generate a proton motive force. Our results suggest that the F1F0-ATPase can hydrolyze ATP but fails to translocate protons due to a defect in one of the subunits of the F0 sector.     

Specificity of acidic phospholipids (CL & PA) in the activation of mitochondrial F0F1 ATPase by Mg2+

The interaction of Mg2+ with native F0F1 ATPase was studied. The hydrolytic activity of F0F1 ATPase could be competitively activated by Mg2+, but the preincubation of F0F1 ATPase with cholate eliminated the Mg2+ effect. The result from the comparison of the effect of Mg2+ on F0F1 ATPase with that on soluble F1 ATPase, and the fact that the activation of Mg2+ on cholate-treated F0F1 ATPase could be reconstituted only by divalent acidic phospholipid cardiolipin, indicate that there exists a specificity between the acidic phospholipids of the mitochondrial inner membrane and Mg2+ enhancement of ATP-hydrolyzing activity of F0F1 ATPase.     

Membrane integration and function of the three F0 subunits of the ATP synthase of Escherichia coli K12

Integration into the cytoplasmic membrane and function of the three F0 subunits, a, b and c, of the membrane-bound ATP synthase of Escherichia coli K12 were analysed in situations where synthesis of only one or two types of subunits was possible. This was achieved by combined use of atp mutations and plasmids carrying and expressing one or two of the atp genes coding for ATP synthase subunits. AU three F0 subunits were found to be required for the establishment of efficient H+ conduction. Subunits a and b individually as well as together were found to bind F1 ATPase to the membrane while subunit c did not. The ATPase activity bound to either of these single subunits, or in pairwise combinations, was not inhibited by N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. Also ATP-dependent H+ translocation was not catalysed unless all three F0 subunits were present in the membrane. The integration into the membrane of the subunits a and b was independent of the presence of other ATP synthase subunits.     

Assembly of a functional F0 of the proton-translocating ATPase of Escherichia coli

We have investigated both structural and functional assembly of the F0 portion of the Escherichia coli proton-translocating ATPase in vivo. Fractionation of E. coli minicells containing plasmids which code for parts of the unc operon shows that each of the F0 peptides a, b, and c insert into the cytoplasmic membrane independent of each other and without the polypeptides which form the F1 portion of the complex alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon. Assays of membrane energization indicate that, while formation of a functional proton channel requires the presence of all three F0 polypeptides a, b and c, they are not sufficient. Synthesis of both the alpha and beta subunits of the F1 are required for formation of a functional proton channel.     

Immunoelectron microscopic demonstration of ATPase on the cytoplasmic membrane of the methanogenic bacterium strain Göl.

ATPase was shown to be present on the cytoplasmic membrane of the methanogenic bacterium strain G?l. The enzyme was identified by an immunoelectron microscopic technique by using polyclonal antiserum directed against the beta subunit of Escherichia coli F0F1-ATPase. Negatively stained membrane vesicles exhibited a dense population of stalked particles similar in dimensions and fine structure to typical F0F1-ATPase particles.     

Assembly of the adenosine triphosphatase complex in Escherichia coli: assembly of F0 is dependent on the formation of specific F1 subunits.

A strain of Escherichia coli (AN1007) carrying the polar uncD436 allele which affects the operon coding for the F1-F0 adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) complex was isolated and characterized. The uncD436 allele affected the two genes most distal to the operon promoter, i.e., uncD and uncC. Although the genes coding for the F0 portion of the ATPase complex were not affected in strains carrying this mutant allele, the lack of reconstitution of washed membranes by normal F1 ATPase suggested that a functional F0 might not be formed. This conclusion was supported by the observation that the 18,000-molecular-weight F0 subunit, coded for by the uncF gene, was absent from the membranes. Plasmid pAN36 (uncD+C+), when inserted into a strain carrying the uncD436 allele, resulted in the incorporation of the 18,000-molecular-weight F0 subunit into the membrane. A further series of experiments with Mu-induced polarity mutants, with and without plasmid pAN36, showed that the formation of both the alpha- and beta-subunits of F1 ATPase was an essential prerequisite to the incorporation into the membrane of the 18,000-molecular-weight F0 subunit and to the formation of a functional F0. Examination of the polypeptide composition of membranes from various unc mutants allowed a sequence for the normal assembly of the F1-F0 ATPase complex to be proposed.     

Mutations in the conserved proline 43 residue of the uncE protein (subunit c) of Escherichia coli F1F0-ATPase alter the coupling of F1 to F0

The conserved Pro43 residue of the uncE protein (subunit c) of the Escherichia coli F1F0-ATPase was changed to Ser or Ala by oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, and the mutations were incorporated into the chromosome. The resultant mutant strains were capable of oxidative phosphorylation as indicated by their ability to grow on succinate and had growth yields on glucose that were 80-90% of wild type. Membrane vesicles from the mutants were slightly less efficient than wild type vesicles in ATP-driven proton pumping as indicated by ATP-dependent quenching of quinacrine fluorescence. The decreased quenching response was not due to increased H+ leakiness of the mutant membranes or to loss of F1-ATPase activity from the membrane. These results indicate that the mutant F1F0-ATPases are defective in coupling ATP hydrolysis to H+ translocation. The membrane ATPase activity of the mutants was inhibited less by dicyclohexylcarbodiimide than that of wild type. The decrease in sensitivity to inhibition by dicyclohexylcarbodiimide was caused primarily by dissociation of the F1-ATPase from the mutant F0 in the ATPase assay mixture. These results support the idea that Pro43, and neighboring conserved polar residues play an important role in the binding and functional coupling of F1 to F0. Although a Pro residue is found at position 43 in all species of subunit c studied, surprisingly, it is not absolutely essential to function.     

The polar domain of the b subunit of Escherichia coli F1F0-ATPase forms an elongated dimer that interacts with the F1 sector.

A soluble form of the b subunit of the F0 sector of the F1F0-ATPase of Escherichia coli has been produced, purified, and characterized. In this form of the protein, designated bsol, residues 25-146 (the carboxyl terminus) of b have been fused to an amino-terminal octapeptide extension derived from the vector pUC8. The inferred subunit molecular weight of bsol is 15,459. bsol protein was expressed in E. coli as a soluble cytoplasmic protein and was readily purified to homogeneity by conventional methods. The molecular weight of bsol, determined by sedimentation equilibrium, was 31,200, indicating that the protein is dimeric. Chemical cross-linking studies supported this conclusion. However, bsol sedimented with a coefficient of just 1.8 S and behaved on size exclusion chromatography with an apparent molecular weight of 80,000-85,000. These results indicate that the protein exists in solution as a highly elongated dimer. The circular dichroism spectrum indicated that bsol is highly alpha-helical. Binding of bsol to F1-ATPase was directly demonstrated by size exclusion chromatography. bsol also inhibited the binding of F1-ATPase to F1-depleted membrane vesicles, as measured by reconstitution of energy-dependent quinacrine fluorescence quenching. This result implies that bsol and F0 compete for binding to the same site on F1. The apparently normal interaction of bsol with F1-ATPase strongly suggests that the recombinant protein assumes the correct structure. No substantial effects of bsol on the ATPase activity of purified F1 were observed.     

YidC-mediated membrane insertion of assembly mutants of subunit c of the F1F0 ATPase

YidC is a member of the OxaI family of membrane proteins that has been implicated in the membrane insertion of inner membrane proteins in Escherichia coli. We have recently demonstrated that proteoliposomes containing only YidC support both the stable membrane insertion and the oligomerization of the c subunit of the F(1)F(0) ATP synthase (F(0)c). Here we have shown that two mutants of F(0)c unable to form a functional F(1)F(0) ATPase interact with YidC, require YidC for membrane insertion, but fail to oligomerize. These data show that oligomerization is not essential for the stable YidC-dependent membrane insertion of F(0)c consistent with a function of YidC as a membrane protein insertase.     

Functional and structural characterization of the talin F0F1 domain

The globular head domain of talin, a large multi-domain cytoplasmic protein, is required for inside-out activation of the integrins, a family of heterodimeric transmembrane cell adhesion molecules. Talin head contains a FERM domain that is composed of F1, F2, and F3 subdomains. A F0 subdomain is located N-terminus to F1. The F3 contains a canonical phosphotyrosine binding (PTB) fold that directly interacts with the membrane proximal NPxY/F motif in the integrin β cytoplasmic tail. This interaction is stabilized by the F2 that interacts with the lipid head-groups of the plasma membrane. In comparison to F2 and F3, the properties of the F0F1 remains poorly characterized. Here, we showed that F0F1 is essential for talin-induced activation of integrin αLβ2 (LFA-1). F0F1 has a high content of β-sheet secondary structure, and it tends to homodimerize that may provide stability against proteolysis and chaotrope induced unfolding.     

Diethylstilbestrol. A novel F0-directed probe of the mitochondrial proton ATPase

At low concentrations, diethylstilbestrol (DES) is shown to be a potent F0-directed inhibitor of the F0F1-ATPase of rat liver mitochondria. In analogy to other F0-directed inhibitors, DES inhibits both the ATPase and ATP-dependent proton-translocation activities of the purified and membrane bound enzyme. When added at low concentrations with dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD), a covalent inhibitor, DES acts synergistically to inhibit ATPase activity of the complex. At higher concentrations, DES restores DCCD-inhibited ATPase activity. However, there is no restoration of ATP-dependent proton translocation. Under these conditions DCCD remains covalently bound to the F0F1-ATPase complex and F1 remains bound to Fo. Significantly, when the F0F1-ATPase is inhibited by the Fo-directed inhibitor venturicidin rather than DCCD, DES is also able to restore ATPase activity. In contrast, DES is unable to restore ATPase activity to F0F1 preparations inhibited by the Fo-directed inhibitors oligomycin or tricyclohexyltin. However, combinations of [DES + DCCD] or [DES + venturicidin] can restore ATPase activity to F0F1 preparations inhibited by either oligomycin or tricyclohexyltin. Results presented here indicate that the F0 moiety of the rat liver mitochondrial proton ATPase contains a distinct binding site for DES. In addition, they suggest that at saturating concentrations simultaneous occupancy of the DES binding site and sites for either DCCD or venturicidin promote "uncoupled" ATP hydrolysis.     

Neutron small angle scattering of matched proteoliposomes with incorporated F0F1 ATPase complex from Rhodospirillum rubrum FR1. An approach to the structure of membrane proteins in their natural environment

Purified F0F1 ATPase from Rhodospirillum rubrum FR1 has been incorporated into lipid vesicles from the partially deuterated phospholipid dimyristoylglycerophosphocholine (DMPC-D54). These proteoliposomes were able to carry out energy transducing reactions. The incorporation of the membrane protein was controlled by freeze fracture electron microscopy. A method for structural research of the membrane protein in its natural environment has been developed by means of neutron small angle scattering. Using the contrast variation technique, the lipid part of the proteoliposomes was matched by adding an appropriate amount of D2O to the solvent. Thus the neutron scattering profile of F0F1 ATPase incorporated into vesicles was separated from the neutron scattering of the liposome. F0F1 ATPase incorporated in a lipid bilayer, as well as the free enzyme, yields a radius of gyration of Rg = 6.0 +/- 0.1 nm which leads to an overall diameter of 15.5 nm. This result suggests that the monomeric form of F0F1 ATPase is incorporated in DMPC-D54 membranes at 20 degrees C.     

A mutation in the alpha-subunit of F1-ATPase from Escherichia coli affects the binding of F1 to the membrane

The mutation Gly-29----Asp in the alpha-subunit of the F1-ATPase from Escherichia coli was characterized and shown to cause the following effects. 1) Oxidative phosphorylation was markedly impaired in vivo 2) Membrane ATPase and ATP-driven proton-pumping activities were decreased markedly. 3) Membranes were proton-permeable, and membrane-bound ATPase was dicyclohexylcarbodiimide-insensitive. Therefore, it appeared that integration between F1 and F0 was abnormal. This was confirmed directly by the demonstration that the mutant F1 bound poorly to stripped membranes from a normal strain. Purified, soluble mutant F1 had normal ATPase activity. These results suggest that residue Gly-29, which is strongly conserved in alpha-subunits of F1-ATPases, lies in a region of the alpha-subunit important for membrane binding. Thus, three regions of the F1-alpha-subunit have now been recognized, specialized for membrane binding, nucleotide binding, and alpha/beta intersubunit signal transmission, respectively. The approximate locations of the three regions are described.     

Conserved polar loop region of Escherichia coli subunit c of the F1F0 H+-ATPase. Glutamine 42 is not absolutely essential, but substitutions alter binding and coupling of F1 to F0

The uncE114 mutation (Gln42----Glu) in subunit c of the Escherichia coli H+ ATP synthetase causes uncoupling of proton translocation from ATP hydrolysis (Mosher, M. E., White, L. K., Hermolin, J., and Fillingame, R. H. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 4807-4814). In the background of strain ER, the mutation led to dissociation of F1 from the membrane. Ten revertants to the uncE114 mutation were isolated, and the uncE gene was cloned and sequenced. Six of the revertants were intragenic and had substitutions of glycine, alanine, or valine for the mutant glutamate residue at position 42. The intragenic, revertant uncE genes were incorporated into an otherwise wild type chromosome of strain ER. Membrane vesicles prepared from each of the revertants showed a restoration of F1 binding to F0. The Val42 revertant differed from the other two revertants in that the ATPase activity of F1 was inhibited when membrane bound. This was shown by the stimulation of ATPase activity when F1 was released from the membrane. The Gly42 and Ala42 revertants demonstrated membrane ATPase activity that was resistant to dicyclohexylcarbodiimide treatment. Resistance was shown to be due to the increased dissociation of F1 from the membrane under ATPase assay conditions. The Ala42 revertant showed a significant reduction in ATP-dependent quenching of quinacrine fluorescence that was attributed to less efficient coupling of ATP hydrolysis to H+ translocation, whereas the other revertants showed responses very near to that of wild type. Minor changes in the F1-F0 interaction in all three revertants were indicated by an increase in H+ leakiness, as judged by reduced NADH-dependent quenching of quinacrine fluorescence. The minor defects in the revertants support the idea that residue 42 is involved in the binding and coupling of F1 to F0 but also show that the conserved glutamine (or asparagine) is not absolutely necessary in this function.     

Role of the delta subunit in enhancing proton conduction through the F0 of the Escherichia coli F1F0 ATPase.

We studied the effect of the delta subunit of the Escherichia coli F1 ATPase on the proton permeability of the F0 proton channel synthesized and assembled in vivo. Membranes isolated from an unc deletion strain carrying a plasmid containing the genes for the F0 subunits and the delta subunit were significantly more permeable to protons than membranes isolated from the same strain carrying a plasmid containing the genes for the F0 subunits alone. This increased proton permeability could be blocked by treatment with either dicyclohexyl-carbodiimide or purified F1, both of which block proton conduction through the F0. After reconstitution with purified F1 in vitro, both membrane preparations could couple proton pumping to ATP hydrolysis. These results demonstrate that an interaction between the delta subunit and the F0 during synthesis and assembly produces a significant change in the proton permeability of the F0 proton channel.     

Specific evolution of F1-like ATPases in mycoplasmas

F(1)F(0) ATPases have been identified in most bacteria, including mycoplasmas which have very small genomes associated with a host-dependent lifestyle. In addition to the typical operon of eight genes encoding genuine F(1)F(0) ATPase (Type 1), we identified related clusters of seven genes in many mycoplasma species. Four of the encoded proteins have predicted structures similar to the α, β, γ and ε subunits of F(1) ATPases and could form an F(1)-like ATPase. The other three proteins display no similarity to any other known proteins. Two of these proteins are probably located in the membrane, as they have three and twelve predicted transmembrane helices. Phylogenomic studies identified two types of F(1)-like ATPase clusters, Type 2 and Type 3, characterized by a rapid evolution of sequences with the conservation of structural features. Clusters encoding Type 2 and Type 3 ATPases were assumed to originate from the Hominis group of mycoplasmas. We suggest that Type 3 ATPase clusters may spread to other phylogenetic groups by horizontal gene transfer between mycoplasmas in the same host, based on phylogeny and genomic context. Functional analyses in the ruminant pathogen Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides showed that the Type 3 cluster genes were organized into an operon. Proteomic analyses demonstrated that the seven encoded proteins were produced during growth in axenic media. Mutagenesis and complementation studies demonstrated an association of the Type 3 cluster with a major ATPase activity of membrane fractions. Thus, despite their tendency toward genome reduction, mycoplasmas have evolved and exchanged specific F(1)-like ATPases with no known equivalent in other bacteria. We propose a model, in which the F(1)-like structure is associated with a hypothetical X(0) sector located in the membrane of mycoplasma cells.