生物信息学分析包膜与非包膜病毒的受体蛋白差异

病毒与受体相互作用对于病毒感染宿主细胞至关重要.为了深入理解病毒对于受体蛋白的选择机制,本研究从结构、功能、宿主蛋白相互作用网络以及组织表达量等四个方面系统性地分析和比较了哺乳动物中包膜与非包膜病毒的受体蛋白差异.结果表明,包膜病毒和非包膜病毒的受体蛋白具有相似的结构域组成和功能,但是非包膜病毒的受体蛋白相对于包膜病毒具有更多的结构域数目、更高的N-糖基化水平、在宿主蛋白相互作用网络中有更高的连接度和节点介数、以及在宿主中有更高的表达.本研究有助于加深我们对于哺乳动物中包膜与非包膜病毒受体选择机制的理解,同时也对病毒受体的鉴定具有一定的参考价值.     

利用酵母双杂交系统筛选与人巨细胞病毒皮层蛋白pUL23相互作用的病毒编码蛋白

人巨细胞病毒(HCMV) UL23基因编码病毒皮层蛋白,该基因缺失时,病毒在人包皮成纤维细胞(HFF)中的繁殖速度加快.为进一步阐述HCMV UL23基因编码产物 pUL23的功能及调控机制,采用鸟枪法构建了融合于GAL4活性区域的HCMV Towne株 基因组随机表达文库.利用酵母双杂交技术,以pGBKT7 -UL23为诱饵质粒,从构建 的HCMV基因组表达文库中筛选到与pUL23相互作用的病毒编码蛋白pUL24. GST-pull down实验和免疫共沉淀实验进一步确认两种病毒蛋白之间的相互作用.结果 表明,构建的HCMV基因组表达文库能够用于GAL4酵母双杂交系统筛选与诱饵蛋白相互作用的病毒自身编码蛋白.病毒蛋白pUL23和pUL24之间具有相互作用,这为进一 步阐述pUL23在HCMV感染过程中的功能提供依据.该研究为揭示HCMV病毒感染机制奠定了基础.     

病毒蛋白质组学: 病毒学研究前沿

病毒寄生于宿主细胞中, 需要不断地适应和改变宿主的环境. 它们能够编码多种多功能蛋白质, 这些蛋白能与宿主蛋白发生一系列的相互作用以完成病毒的各种功能. 迄今, 尽管许多病毒的基因组已测序完成, 但由于受到病毒影响而发生相应改变的宿主蛋白组、宿主蛋白翻译后修饰, 以及蛋白酶剪接过程还未被完全阐明. 近年来新兴的高通量技术, 如基于质谱技术的定量或半定量蛋白组方法, 已被广泛应用于病毒宿主相互作用的研究中, 且有望在上述领域取得突破性进展. 本综述主要探讨蛋白质组学研究中的病毒颗粒蛋白质组学, 病毒结构蛋白质组学和病毒影响的宿主蛋白质组学等病毒蛋白质组学中的前沿领域.     

生物信息学分析人类病毒互作广谱蛋白的特征

了解病毒与人类蛋白的相互作用对于理解病毒感染宿主机制非常重要，已有研究主要集中在病毒如何进入宿主细胞、复制、扩散和致病等方向上，对病毒与人类蛋白的相互作用模式缺乏系统研究。本研究中我们构建了迄今为止最全面的病毒与人类之间的蛋白相互作用网络，涵盖来自218种病毒的1 674种蛋白与来自人类的13 724种蛋白的108 832对蛋白相互作用；在此基础上鉴定出109个至少与12种病毒家族存在蛋白相互作用的人类蛋白，定义为人类的病毒互作广谱蛋白（简称广谱蛋白）；从结构、功能、蛋白互作网络以及组织表达量等四个方面系统地分析了广谱蛋白的特征，发现广谱蛋白相较于非广谱蛋白以及其它人类蛋白具有更密集的转角结构、更多的结构域、更高的网络中心度和组织表达量，表明它们可能在病毒感染宿主过程中起着重要作用。本研究有助于加深我们对于病毒感染人类模式的理解，同时也对进一步探究病毒与疾病之间的关联有一定的帮助。     

哺乳动物病毒共受体的特征研究

为了探究哺乳动物病毒共受体间的共性特征,本研究基于ViralReceptor数据库中收集的哺乳动物病毒-受体相互作用关系,共收集277对病毒共受体组合,从结构、功能、进化和组织表达等方面对这些病毒共受体进行系统分析,并与来源于不同哺乳动物的病毒受体组合以及随机挑选的人类蛋白组合进行比较。结果显示,哺乳动物病毒共受体相较于其他蛋白组合,彼此间有更高的功能相似性,在宿主蛋白相互作用网络中相互作用的比例更高,在人体常见组织中的共表达水平更高。研究表明,哺乳动物病毒共受体具有功能、表达和互作等共性特征。期望此结果能为病毒受体的发现和鉴定等研究提供参考。     

水稻矮缩病病毒粒子装配模型

水稻矮缩病病毒(RDV)具有多种蛋白质和RNA构成的核衣壳结构, 但是特异性的RNA与蛋白质、蛋白质与蛋白质之间的相互作用和结合, 即有关病毒粒子的装配机理还没有完全阐明. 从细胞内和细胞外两个研究层次详细研究了RNA与蛋白质相互结合情况, 研究发现, P7蛋白能特异并牢固地与RDV基因组的全部12条双链RNA结合; 推定为RNA聚合酶的P1蛋白、鸟苷酰转移酶的P5蛋白和P7蛋白被包裹在病毒核内, 根据体外结合实验, 它们能与病毒转录产物mRNA结合; 从病毒感染的组织中能够提取得到完整的、有感染活性的病毒粒子, 以及缺失P1, P5, P7蛋白和基因组双链RNA, 没有感染活性的空壳病毒粒子; 在病毒粒子中P7蛋白能够与P1蛋白和P3内衣壳蛋白形成蛋白复合物. 这些结果揭示了RDV病毒粒子装配的一种可能的模型, 即核心蛋白和病毒mRNA首先相互结合形成一个整体, 以筛选和富集病毒RNA, 接着包装成为完整的、具有感染活性的病毒粒子.     

人核仁磷酸化蛋白1(NOLC1)影响禽流感病毒感染过程研究进展

禽流感是由A型流感病毒引起的家禽类传染病,能够引发从呼吸系统病变到全身性败血症等多种症状。禽流感病毒的传播给养殖业带来巨大经济损失,同时对人类健康也造成威胁。研究表明,禽流感病毒非结构蛋白NS1通过与宿主细胞内多种蛋白相互作用影响了病毒的感染进程,人核仁磷酸化蛋白即是其中之一,该蛋白参与核仁组装、细胞生长发育及肿瘤发生等过程,还能与禽流感病毒的非结构蛋白NS1发生相互作用,影响禽流感病毒感染过程。本文对NOLC1蛋白的结构、功能及如何影响禽流感病毒的感染等相关研究进展进行综述。     

利用酵母双杂交系统研究植物与病毒蛋白相互作用的进展

在长期进化中,植物形成了抵御病毒等病原微生物侵染的精细防御系统。在病毒侵染、复制和传播过程中,其编码的一些蛋白,如外壳蛋白、运动蛋白、复制酶类等能够与植物基因编码的蛋白发生相互作用。酵母双杂交系统是体外研究蛋白质间相互作用的有利工具,不但可以用于研究已知蛋白质的互作,还可以发现新蛋白,揭示特定蛋白互作网络与作用机制,在植物蛋白与病毒蛋白互作研究中已得到广泛的利用。本文主要综述利用酵母双杂交系统研究植物与病毒蛋白相互作用的国内外进展。     

病毒-宿主蛋白相互作用组学研究进展

病毒和宿主之间的蛋白相互作用贯穿其整个生命周期.对病毒-宿主蛋白相互作用组的研究不仅可以阐明病毒的感染过程和机体的防御机制,而且还可以揭示潜在的抗病毒治疗靶点.本文回顾了病毒-宿主蛋白相互作用组学常用的研究方法,并探讨了每种方法的优点及局限性.     

组氨酸质子化触发病毒膜融合及其分子机制

膜融合是有包膜病毒入侵靶细胞的关键步骤,低pH、受体结合、二者兼具或其他尚未界定的机制均可触发病毒融合蛋白的构象重排,介导病毒包膜与靶细胞膜或内体膜间的融合。组氨酸(histidine,His)残基是唯一一个质子化状态变化(pKa~6~7)接近于病毒融合阈值(~pH6)的氨基酸,参与多种低pH依赖的病毒融合蛋白构象转变及膜融合,对其可能作用机制的阐述将有助于抗病毒药物的研制与发展。     

Direct Binding of Retromer to Human Papillomavirus Type 16 Minor Capsid Protein L2 Mediates Endosome Exit during Viral Infection

Trafficking of human papillomaviruses to the Golgi apparatus during virus entry requires retromer, an endosomal coat protein complex that mediates the vesicular transport of cellular transmembrane proteins from the endosome to the Golgi apparatus or the plasma membrane. Here we show that the HPV16 L2 minor capsid protein is a retromer cargo, even though L2 is not a transmembrane protein. We show that direct binding of retromer to a conserved sequence in the carboxy-terminus of L2 is required for exit of L2 from the early endosome and delivery to the trans-Golgi network during virus entry. This binding site is different from known retromer binding motifs and can be replaced by a sorting signal from a cellular retromer cargo. Thus, HPV16 is an unconventional particulate retromer cargo, and retromer binding initiates retrograde transport of viral components from the endosome to the trans-Golgi network during virus entry. We propose that the carboxy-terminal segment of L2 protein protrudes through the endosomal membrane and is accessed by retromer in the cytoplasm.     

The emerging roles of retromer and sorting nexins in the life cycle of viruses

Retromer and sorting nexins (SNXs) transport cargoes from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network or plasma membrane. Recent studies have unveiled the emerging roles for retromer and SNXs in the life cycle of viruses, including members of Coronaviridae, Flaviviridae and Retroviridae. Key components of retromer/SNXs, such as Vps35, Vps26, SNX5 and SNX27, can affect multiple steps of the viral life cycle, including facilitating the entry of viruses into cells, participating in viral replication, and promoting the assembly of virions. Here we present a comprehensive updated review on the interplay between retromer/SNXs and virus, which will shed mechanistic insights into controlling virus infection.     

Retromer Regulates HIV-1 Envelope Glycoprotein Trafficking and Incorporation into Virions

The envelope glycoprotein (Env) of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type-1 (HIV-1) is a critical determinant of viral infectivity, tropism and is the main target for humoral immunity; however, little is known about the cellular machinery that directs Env trafficking and its incorporation into nascent virions. Here we identify the mammalian retromer complex as a novel and important cellular factor regulating Env trafficking. Retromer mediates endosomal sorting and is most closely associated with endosome-to-Golgi transport. Consistent with this function, inactivating retromer using RNAi targeting the cargo selective trimer complex inhibited retrograde trafficking of endocytosed Env to the Golgi. Notably, in HIV-1 infected cells, inactivating retromer modulated plasma membrane expression of Env, along with Env incorporation into virions and particle infectivity. Mutagenesis studies coupled with coimmunoprecipitations revealed that retromer-mediated trafficking requires the Env cytoplasmic tail that we show binds directly to retromer components Vps35 and Vps26. Taken together these results provide novel insight into regulation of HIV-1 Env trafficking and infectious HIV-1 morphogenesis and show for the first time a role for retromer in the late-steps of viral replication and assembly of a virus.     

Analyses of sorting nexins reveal distinct retromer-subcomplex functions in development and protein sorting in Arabidopsis thaliana

Sorting nexins (SNXs) are conserved eukaryotic proteins that associate with three types of vacuolar protein sorting (VPS) proteins to form the retromer complex. How SNXs act in this complex and whether they might work independently of the retromer remains elusive. Here, we show by genetic and cell imaging approaches that the Arabidopsis thaliana SNX1 protein recruits SNX2 at the endosomal membrane, a process required for SNX1-SNX2 dimer activity. We report that, in contrast with the mammalian retromer, SNXs are dispensable for membrane binding and function of the retromer complex. We also show that VPS retromer components can work with or independently of SNXs in the trafficking of seed storage proteins, which reveals distinct functions for subcomplexes of the plant retromer. Finally, we provide compelling evidence that the combined loss of function of SNXs and VPS29 leads to embryo or seedling lethality, underlining the essential role of these proteins in development.     

Endosomal receptor trafficking: Retromer and beyond

The tubular endolysosomal network is a quality control system that ensures the proper delivery of internalized receptors to specific subcellular destinations in order to maintain cellular homeostasis. Although retromer was originally described in yeast as a regulator of endosome‐to‐Golgi receptor recycling, mammalian retromer has emerged as a central player in endosome‐to‐plasma membrane recycling of a variety of receptors. Over the past decade, information regarding the mechanism by which retromer facilitates receptor trafficking has emerged, as has the identification of numerous retromer‐associated molecules including the WASH complex, sorting nexins (SNXs) and TBC1d5. Moreover, the recent demonstration that several SNXs can directly interact with retromer cargo to facilitate endosome‐to‐Golgi retrieval has provided new insight into how these receptors are trafficked in cells. The mechanism by which SNX17 cargoes are recycled out of the endosomal system was demonstrated to involve a retromer‐like complex termed the retriever, which is recruited to WASH positive endosomes through an interaction with the COMMD/CCDC22/CCDC93 (CCC) complex. Lastly, the mechanisms by which bacterial and viral pathogens highjack this complex sorting machinery in order to escape the endolysosomal system or remain hidden within the cells are beginning to emerge. In this review, we will highlight recent studies that have begun to unravel the intricacies by which the retromer and associated molecules contribute to receptor trafficking and how deregulation at this sorting domain can contribute to disease or facilitate pathogen infection.      

The retromer complex influences Wnt secretion by recycling wntless from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network

Secreted Wnt proteins play essential roles in many biological processes during development and diseases. However, little is known about the mechanism(s) controlling Wnt secretion. Recent studies have identified Wntless (Wls) and the retromer complex as essential components involved in Wnt signaling. While Wls has been shown to be essential for Wnt secretion, the function(s) of the retromer complex in Wnt signaling is unknown. Here, we have examined a role of Vps35, an essential retromer subunit, in Wnt signaling in Drosophila and mammalian cells. We provide compelling evidence that the retromer complex is required for Wnt secretion. Importantly, Vps35 colocalizes in endosomes and interacts with Wls. Wls becomes unstable in the absence of retromer activity. Our findings link Wls and retromer functions in the same conserved Wnt secretion pathway. We propose that retromer influences Wnt secretion by recycling Wntless from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network (TGN).     

Two novel WD40 domain-containing proteins, Ere1 and Ere2, function in the retromer-mediated endosomal recycling pathway

Regulated secretion, nutrient uptake, and responses to extracellular signals depend on cell-surface proteins that are internalized and recycled back to the plasma membrane. However, the underlying mechanisms that govern membrane protein recycling to the cell surface are not fully known. Using a chemical-genetic screen in yeast, we show that the arginine transporter Can1 is recycled back to the cell surface via two independent pathways mediated by the sorting nexins Snx4/41/42 and the retromer complex, respectively. In addition, we identify two novel WD40-domain endosomal recycling proteins, Ere1 and Ere2, that function in the retromer pathway. Ere1 is required for Can1 recycling via the retromer-mediated pathway, but it is not required for the transport of other retromer cargoes, such as Vps10 and Ftr1. Biochemical studies reveal that Ere1 physically interacts with internalized Can1. Ere2 is present in a complex containing Ere1 on endosomes and functions as a regulator of Ere1. Taken together, our results suggest that Snx4/41/42 and the retromer comprise two independent pathways for the recycling of internalized cell-surface proteins. Moreover, a complex containing the two novel proteins Ere1 and Ere2 mediates cargo-specific recognition by the retromer pathway.     

The SNXy flavours of endosomal sorting

The retromer complex coordinates retrograde transport of cargo proteins between endosomes and the trans-Golgi network. The sorting nexin SNX3 is required for the retrograde trafficking of Wntless, but not of other retrograde cargo proteins, revealing that the cargo specificity of retromer is provided by the sorting nexins.     

Trying to make sense of retromer

Retromer is a cytosolic protein complex which binds to post-Golgi organelles involved in the trafficking of proteins to the lytic compartment of the cell. In non-plant organisms, retromer mediates the recycling of acid hydrolase receptors from early endosomal (EE) compartments. In plants, retromer components are required for the targeting of vacuolar storage proteins, and for the recycling of endocytosed PIN proteins. However, there are contradictory reports as to the localization of the sorting nexins and the core subunit of retromer. There is also uncertainty as to the identity of the organelles from which vacuolar sorting receptors (VSRs) and endocytosed plasma membrane (PM) proteins are recycled. In this review we try to resolve some of these conflicting observations.